Checkers and Draughts -- a guide to variants and literature
compiled by Michael Keller

Thanks for assistance to Philip Cohen, Ed Gilbert, Jake Kacher, Ken Lovell, Bob Newell, and Dennis Pawlek.

Table of Contents
Definition
A Brief History
General Rules
Checkers vs. Chess
Anglo-American Checkers
Flying King (Queen) Variants
  International Checkers
  Frisian Draughts
  Turkish Draughts (Dama)
Variants to Reduce Draws
Alternate Opening Positions
Modern Variants
Combinations of Chess and Checkers
Commercial Variants
Distant relatives of checkers
Notation and Diagrams
Software
Bibliography
  Anglo-American Checkers
  Available online
  Advanced Strategy
  Collections of Games
  Openings
     Anglo-American Checkers
        Three-move Compilations
        Modern Works
        Individual Openings
     International Draughts Openings (10x10)
  Computers
  International Draughts (10x10)
  Pool Checkers
  Magazines
Organizations
Websites
Appendix 1: Anglo-American (8x8) Checker Openings
Appendix 2: Historical Notes on Individual Openings
Appendix 3: Glossary

Checkers or Draughts is a family of abstract two-player board games in which capturing is done by jumping over opposing pieces to remove them.   It is played on a checkered square board usually ranging from 8x8 to 12x12.   Most variants of the game are played on the dark squares only; each player starts out with a set of identical pieces which fill the dark squares of the first three or four ranks of their side of the board.   The terms checkers (mostly used in the United States) and draughts (used in most of the rest of the English-speaking world) should be considered interchangeable, like solitaire and patience.

A Brief History
Checkers as we know it today probably developed in 12th-century France or Spain, on a chessboard, using the original form of chess queen called the fers, which could only move one square diagonally.  The pieces were likely the same flat disks used in one of the tables games (forerunner of backgammon).  Possibly checkers was at least inspired by the ancient game of Alquerque, but the earliest forms of checkers only have the jumping capture in common with Alquerque: pieces only move forward, promote on reaching the last rank, and captures might not begin until several moves have been made, since there are two empty rows separating the opposing forces.  The earliest form of draughts, as we know it today, unlike Alquerque, did not not have forced captures, although virtually all modern variants do: forced capture (jeu de force) was introduced in the 16th century.  Variants with flying kings (queens in French and Spanish) probably developed soon after the chess queen and bishop adapted their modern unlimited move around 1475 (see the introduction to Westerveld's Draughts Dictionary).  

The oldest book is supposed to have been published in 1547 by Antonio de Torquemada; this is lost and is only known through references in later books.  Modern research suggests the book was actually written by Juan de Timoneda; a book on draughts was published under his name in 1635 which is likely the same book.   Spanish draughts was already using flying kings (or long kings) in the 17th century, and the three kings vs. one king ending, later called Petrov's Triangle, appeared in Spanish books of the period.  In 1650, Juan Garcia Canalejas's book La gloriosa historia española del Juego de las Damas included one of the most famous opening traps, commonly named after him, but it actually appeared earlier in Pedro Ruiz Montero's 1591 Libro del juego de las damas vulgarmente nombrado el marro. 

William Payne's 1756 An Introduction to the Game of Draughts was the first book in English.  Serious play began in Great Britain in the 19th century, and the first recognized World Champion was Scotland's Andrew Anderson in 1840.  Books, newspaper columns, and eventually magazines began to spread interest in the game.  It also gained popularity in the United States, which saw its first newspaper column on "checkers or draughts" in the 1855 New York Clipper.  By 1880, when H.D. Lyman was assembling a book of checkers problems (which was published in 1881), he drew from over 35 different American and British magazines and newspapers.

In 1949, Arthur Samuel started programming the first checker-playing program, building on earlier work by Claude Shannon (who proposed, but never developed, an early idea for a chess-playing computer), and Christopher Strachey (who developed a draughts program for a video display in 1951 and presented his results at a conference in 1952).  Samuel worked out and tested various parameters for evaluating checkers positions, discarding those that did not work well.  By 1952 Samuel had a working program for the IBM 701 computer, and by 1955 the program was one of the first successful examples of machine learning (a term Samuel coined).   He pioneered some of the techniques of game programming (such as hashing, minimax, and alpha-beta pruning), which influenced later programmers in various games, including Gerald Tesauro's 1992 TD-Gammon and the chess program Deep Blue, both also developed at IBM.   Although Samuel's Checkers Player never reached master strength, other programs followed in its wake.   Tom Truscott and Eric Jensen wrote the next strong program at Duke University.  As personal computers became widespread, other programs were developed with the increasingly fast hardware becoming available.  In 2003, Ed Trice and Gil Dodgen published the first perfect play database, with every position up to 7 pieces in total, for their program World Championship Checkers.   In 2007, a team led by Canadian computer scientist Jonathan Schaeffer announced that their program Chinook had established that 8x8 American checkers (with unrestricted openings) was a draw with best play by both sides (other variants, particularly the larger International game, are far from being solved).

General Rules
In most variants, pawns (plain pieces, also called men or checkers) can only capture by short leap, jumping over an adjacent opposing piece to the vacant square immediately beyond.   Pawns which reach the last rank (kingrow) are promoted to kings (gaining the power to move and capture backwards in Anglo-American checkers), or in some variants queens (also called flying kings), which can move any number of vacant squares in one direction, and also capture by long leap, jumping over an opposing piece any distance away and landing any distance beyond, provided all of the intervening squares (except the square containing the piece to be captured) are vacant.   The object is to capture or block all of the opposing pieces.

In almost every variant, captures are mandatory, and a capturing piece must continue to capture if another capture is available from its landing square.   It is illegal to jump over a friendly piece, or to jump over an opposing piece twice.   In some variants, pieces are removed as soon as they are captured (which may allow other captures); others remove all captured pieces only at the end of a move.   Some variants require the maximum number of pieces to be captured; others allow any piece which can capture to do so, not necessarily one with the most available captures.    In most variants where pawns can capture backwards, a pawn which reaches the kingrow by capture but makes another capture on the same move, leaving the kingrow, is not promoted (Russian draughts is a notable exception).

At one time, there was a rule called huffing: if a player made a non-capturing move when a capture was available, the opponent could remove a piece which should have captured, then make a regular move (the opponent could also let the move stand, or require the move to be retracted and a capturing move played instead).  This rule was long ago abandoned in all serious play, although it can still be found in beginners' instructions and some general books on games (Cambodian and Malaysian draughts seems to be the only regional variants that still use huffing).

There are many regional (national) variants, which may differ in unimportant ways such as which player goes first and whether the double corner is to each player's left or right (the majority place the double corner on each player's right, with a light square in the right corner as in chess).  In the early days of Scottish and English draughts, there was not even a standard as to whether play was on dark squares or light squares.   For some reason, dark squares won out, despite being worse from a visibility standpoint.  Important distinctions in the regional variants are primarily in board size and capture rules.  We give the most widely played variants below.

Checkers vs. Chess
Checkers has an undeserved reputation as a lightweight game for children, and is used in fatuous metaphors comparing it unfavorably to chess.  Anecdotal evidence from discussion boards suggests that a possible reason so many people disparage checkers is that they are unaware of the correct rules.   Playing without mandatory captures is a very common house rule, and it is the way many people are taught to play.  But checkers simply doesn't work without mandatory capturing: the game is unwaveringly dull, and can easily turn into a completely blocked position (especially when players refuse to move from their back rank to prevent the opponent from getting a king).   (At least one online checkers app I found had forced captures turned off by default, though it can be turned on).

Played properly, in any of its major variants, checkers is a deep strategic game.  Many players who have mastered both games (Newell Banks, Irving Chernev, Emanuel Lasker, Harry Nelson Pillsbury, Alexander Kotov, Vassily Ivanchuk) hold both games in high regard (even Bobby Fischer was interested in pool checkers, and learned from the books by his friend Archie Waters).  The notable Russian chess magazine 64 for much of its history covered 8x8 Russian draughts, and later 10x10 International draughts.  In Studying Chess Made Easy, Andy Soltis suggests students play both games, as checkers helps with visualization and calculation.   Like chess, it has a long history of serious competition in several different forms, including postal play, and a voluminous literature (until sometime in the 20th century, it was even larger than chess, according to Schaeffer's One Jump Ahead).   There are also competitions in checkers played with much smaller time limits (e.g. 15 minutes per player per game in Rapid, 5 minutes in Blitz).    Checkers is well-suited to simultaneous exhibitions, sometimes blindfold (checkers, particularly with flying kings, might actually be harder to play blindfold than chess).  The noted chess historian Edward Winter has a fine article on some of the notables who have played both games, including Banks and Lasker.   Several books rightly refer to serious play as scientific checkers.

Anglo-American Checkers
The variant of the game most common in the United States (where it is called checkers) and the United Kingdom (where it is called draughts) probably has the largest literature of any form of the game (now second only to chess among board games).   It is played on the dark squares of an 8x8 checkered board, with each player starting with 12 men (generically pawns) a side, on the three ranks nearest them.   The object is to capture or block all of the opposing pieces.   The player with the darker pieces moves first.  Men move one square diagonally forward, and capture diagonally forward by jumping over an adjacent opposing piece which has a vacant square behind it.  Captures are mandatory: a player must make a capturing move if one is available, and must continue to capture with the moving piece if another capture is available from the landing square (making a series of captures of the same turn).   If more than one capturing move is available (with more than one piece, or in more than one direction), any capture (not necessarily the move that captures the most pieces) may be played.   At the end of a capture or series of captures, all of the opposing pieces which were jumped are removed.   A man which reaches the last rank (the opponent's first), by either a normal or capturing move, promotes to become a king (usually marked by placing a second piece on top of it) and the turn ends.   A king moves and captures like a man, but in any direction (backward as well as forward).   It can also make multiple captures, jumping in any direction on each jump.   A player wins when their opponent has no legal moves (usually because they have no pieces left, but occasionally when all of their remaining pieces are blocked).   Draws occur when neither player can force a win (usually due to equal material in the endgame).   The game with single step kings is also sometimes referred to as straight checkers, to distinguish from the larger family of games with flying kings. 

In most books, the first player is designated Black and the second White.  Serious players play with thick solid plain disks similar to backgammon pieces, most often red and white, and a board of green and buff (white, off-white, or cream) squares.  [Some recent books designate the first player Red instead of Black.]   Play is on the green squares.  Although play is on the darker squares, printed diagrams in monochrome are usually made with reversed colors, so the pieces are shown on white squares, with the unused squares in gray (monochrome diagrams printed with the pieces on dark squares are often nightmarishly unreadable).   Checker sets for children, at least in the United States, are usually red and black plastic disks with ridges on both sides which allow the pieces to lock together when a piece is kinged.  These are dreadful, as black checkers show up poorly on black squares.   Inexpensive combination sets with 15 red and black checkers are often sold with a folding board which has a backgammon board on the other side (and sometimes a set of chess pieces as well).  

Many checkers books dutifully include three or four pages on The Standard Laws (originally compiled by Andrew Anderson in 1852), which give intricate instructions on time limits, improper moves, etc., but leave out trivial details such as how the pieces move and capture.   W.T. Call's Vocabulary of Checkers cites an incident (No man to crown with) which happened twice in 1884, where a player moved a man to the kingrow before he had lost a piece, and refused to allow a checker to be borrowed from another board (claiming a win), until the umpire intervened.   The laws as given today explicitly direct the referee to furnish a checker in this circumstance.

Anglo-American checkers can played just as well on a 10x10 board: Zillions of Games includes 10x10 implementations with both 15 and 20 pieces per side (some online versions call these Sparse Checkers and Crowded Checkers respectively).

Italian Checkers
A variant of Anglo-American checkers, in which kings cannot be captured by pawns.  The board is rotated so that the double corner is to each player's left.   The rules for multiple captures are complicated: if multiple captures are available with different pieces, the largest number of pieces must be captured; if equal, capture by a king must be chosen over capture by a pawn; if two kings can capture equal numbers, the one which captures more kings must be chosen; if equal, the one which captures a king earlier.  Some sources say a player who loses without a pawn being promoted loses double; this does not seem to be part of the official rules.   Ed Gilbert's Kingsrow checkers program has a version for Italian Checkers.

Flying King (Queen) variants
[Variants in which kings (queens) move and capture any distance along an open diagonal.]



International Draughts
The most popular form of the game worldwide is played on a 10x10 board, with 20 checkers per side on the first four ranks.   White moves first.   There are two important differences from Anglo-American checkers: plain checkers can capture diagonally backward as well as forward, and kings are flying kings: they can make non-capturing moves any number of empty squares along a diagonal (like a bishop in chess), and can capture by jumping an opposing piece any distance away and land any distance beyond, as long as they pass over only empty squares (except for the checker being captured).   Multiple captures, either by a checker or king, are also possible; when a choice of captures is available, the largest number of opposing pieces must be captured.   A checker which reaches the last rank, but which still has an available (backwards) capture, must make that capture and is not kinged; only a checker which finishes its move on the last rank is kinged.   In some books it is referred to as Polish Checkers (a fallacious name; it did not originate in Poland) or Continental Draughts.  

A consequence of flying kings is that endgames with two kings versus one are drawn; it takes at least three and usually four kings to force the capture of a single opposing king (but see alternate demotion rules).   Despite this, the International game is much less drawish than the Anglo-American variant, and richer in tactics.

International Draughts is also played on an 8x8 board with the same rules (checkers capture backwards, flying kings, and maximum captures) and 12 checkers per side.   This is now offically called Brazilian Draughts (older sources called it German Checkers, or Damenspiel, but modern German rules do not allow plain checkers to capture backwards).  A backwards capture can occur as early as Black's second move: e.g. 10-14 22-17; 11-15 17x19 (capturing 14 forward and 15 backwards).    Spanish Draughts is similar to Brazilian except that plain checkers cannot capture backwards (Spanish Draughts also rotates the board so that the double corner is to the left; Portuguese Draughts is the same as Spanish but with the double corner on the right as usual).    Spanish Draughts, as described in older books, is sometimes played with each player having one or two kings each on their king rows at the start of the game.

American Pool checkers
The official rules of American Pool do not require the maximum number of captures to be made, but a capturing piece must still continue to capture as long as captures are available.  Captured pieces are all removed at the end of the turn.   Otherwise it is the same as Brazilian Draughts.    A few older books refer to it as Minor Polish Checkers.

Russian Draughts (шашки)
This variant, dating back to 1884, is played on an 8x8 board with most of the International rules, with the following exceptions: a checker which reaches the last rank by capture becomes a king immediately and can continue to capture as a king on the same move.   Any capture, not necessarily one allowing the most pieces to be captured, may be played when multiple captures are available, but a piece which has made a capture (including a checker just kinged) must continue to capture on the same turn if a capture is available.  Russian draughts players have adapted easily to American Pool, which only lacks the continuation capture of a checker just kinged.

Russian draughts is also sometimes played on a wider 10x8 board (10 files and 8 ranks) with 15 checkers per side.   This is sometimes called Spantsireti after its inventor, Nikolai Spansireti, but is usually called 80-Squares Checkers (80-клеточные шашки).   There are a number of other variants of Russian draughts, including:
(1) Northern Checkers (Северные шашки), where a captured king is not removed, but demoted to a plain checker.
(2) Simple Checkers (Простые шашки), in which checkers do not promote (checkers cannot move once they reach the last rank, except to capture backwards).
(3) Double-Move Checkers (Двухходовые шашки), where players move twice per turn.  (It is not played in balanced doublemove fashion: White makes two moves even on their first turn).
(4) Giveaway Checkers (поддавки шашки), played with Russian rules.   It has been widely studied in Russia, and tournaments have been played since 2011.

Canadian Draughts (Grand Jeu de Dames)
International Draughts on a 12x12 board, with 30 pieces per player on their first five ranks.   Malaysian Checkers (also played in Singapore) is similar to Canadian, but plain checkers cannot capture backwards, and the huffing rule is still in effect.     In Cape Town, South Africa, a variant called Dumm is played on a 14x14 board.

Czech Checkers (Česca Dáma)
International Draughts on an 8x8 board, but plain checkers are not allowed to capture backwards (so opening theory should be similar to Anglo-American).   Played in Slovakia with only 8 plain checkers per side.

Frisian Draughts
One of the most interesting regional games, played in The Netherlands for over 400 years, is played on the 10x10 board as in International draughts.  Although it is played only on the dark squares, captures can also be made orthogonally, leaping over two light squares as well as an opposing piece.  Captures by both men and kings are allowed in all eight directions.  Men move diagonally one square forward when not capturing.  Kings move as bishops in chess, and capture by long leap.  A multiple capture must capture pieces of the largest available total value (counting kings as just below 1-1/2).   If values are equal, a capture must be made by a king rather than a man.   An individual king can only make three consecutive non-capturing moves (unless a player has only kings).   The World Championship Frisian Draughts site has an excellent basic strategy manual (including openings and endgames) in five languages, rules in six languages, and additional books in Dutch.  Recently a miniature version, Frysk, with only five pieces per side, has been introduced.  Both Frisian and Frysk are featured on the LiDraughts server.

Full board Orthogonal variants
[Movement is orthogonal; every square is available]



Turkish Draughts (Dama)
The main variant in which all 64 squares are used.   Each player has 16 pawns, placed on the second and third ranks (diagram above, although traditional boards are uncheckered).   Pawns move one square straight forward or sideways, and capture by jumping in the same manner.    A pawn which finishes its move on the last rank is kinged; a pawn which jumps to the last rank can continue with sideways capture if available (and is still kinged).   Kings (Dama) can move and capture any distance in any orthogonal direction.   Pieces in multiple captures are removed as each is jumped; this may make new captures available; reversal of direction (180 degree turn) is not permitted.   The maximum number of captures available must be made.   {The description in The New Complete Hoyle and Goren's Hoyle is erroneous: they allow diagonal movement, probably confusing it with Armenian Checkers.}

Turkish checkers is the basis for an excellent modern variant, Give and Take, invented by Christopher Elis, described later under Modern Variants.

Variants to reduce draws
Because the Anglo-American game has a very high rate of draws among expert players, a number of variants have been devised to vary the opening play:

Eleven-Man Ballot (Newell W. Banks, 1907) -- each player removes one checker from the start, from squares chosen at random from a special deck of 8 cards.  A second card drawn by each player gives their first move to be played.   2500 unique opening positions are possible in all; Ed Gilbert's Kingsrow program identified 247 as losses, leaving 2253 playable openings.   Goren gives a slightly different description, in which the two pieces removed are corresponding positions (e.g. 6 and 27).   Other systems have also been used, including special 12-sided and 4-sided dice devised by Don Brattin, based on an idea by Bill Scott.   A detailed description of various systems for 11-man ballots is on the website of the North Carolina Checker Association.

Balloting for opening moves is now used in Russian tournaments, with 780 possible combinations of up to three moves per side (e.g. combination 11 XVII is a longer line in the equivalent of the American opening Gemini 2: 10-15 23-19; 11-16 19x10; 6x15 22-17).   Some of the ballots use a system called flying checkers, in which one or two pieces are moved from their opening position to a square to which they could not normally move (e.g ballot 23 IV moves a3 to d4 and h8 to h4).

Contract Checkers (L.S. Stricker, 1934) [source: Goren's Hoyle; Games Digest June 1938]
Play starts with 12 checkers a side in the usual array.  There are one, two, three, or four extra checkers per side in reserve.  One checker each is added simultaneously to each side when designated pairs of back row squares are vacated (e.g., in the 13-checker variant, each player adds a reserve checker as soon as both 4 and 29 are vacant).  Talis' description in Games Digest suggests only one extra checker per side, placed simulataneously as soon as any pair of corresponding back row squares become vacant.

Three Move Ballot -- See Appendix 1.

King Demotion Rules
In Draughts variants with flying kings, it normally takes four kings to defeat a lone king.   (In 8x8 variants, three kings can defeat one king if the stronger side has a king on the long diagonal between the single corners, using a technique usually called a Petrov Triangle.)   An alternate rule to fix this is to require a king, when capturing an opposing king, to stop in the square immediately beyond the captured king, rather than being allowed to fly further after capturing (this is a standard rule in some regional variants like Thai Checkers).   Christian Freeling calls the game with this rule Killer Draughts.   It has the effect that two kings can win against a single king, instead of requiring three or four.  Juri Anikejev suggested a more limited rule called Modern Draughts (Killer Light) by applying the rule only after capturing a king at the end of a multiple capture sequence.

Herman Hoogland, a World Champion player from the Netherlands, borrowed a rule from Frisian Draughts to allow two kings to defeat one: a king can capture an opposing king orthogonally.  In 2020 on the BoardGameGeek forum, Michał Zapała proposed a new variant, Constitutional Draughts, in which a king making a non-capturing move could not pass through an attacked square to reach a non-attacked square (capturing moves are unaffected); this also allows two kings to defeat one (a short introduction is here).

Breakthrough
The first player to make a king wins (also called Kingscourt, not to be confused with the commercial variant King's Court described below).   This is sometimes used as a simpler variant to teach beginners the basics of strategy.   It is supported as a variant on Lidraughts, but can obviously be played with almost any variant.   Martin Fierz solved the version for 8x8 American checkers in 2006 (White has a forced win in about 31 moves).


Alternate Opening Positions

   
                                                    Diagonal Checkers

Diagonal checkers (in the 12-piece version above left) is a common variant for American checkers, and also in both Russian and German draughts.  Pawns promote to Kings in either of the two opposite double corner squares (German: a7b8 or g1h2) or any of the four edge squares farthest away (Russian: a5a7b8d8 or e1g1h2h4).   There is also a 9-piece variant (above right).


                 Parallel Checkers

Parallel Checkers (Les Dames Paralleles, ou A Sens Unique) (Joseph Boyer)
From the book by Boyer and Parton; both players move and promote in the same direction (moving up the board); Boyer does not specify which player moves first.  It can be played with any of the usual variants; the game server BrainKing implements it as One-Way Checkers, on an 8x8 board using Czech Checkers rules (no backwards captures by plain checkers).   Boyer also suggests 12x12 Canadian checkers; the starting position is more balanced when both players have the same number of checkers on their uppermost row (8x8 or 12x12).

Super-checkers (Charles Fort) c. 1930
A giant variant played with many checkers per side on a large checkered cloth.   Players were allowed to make large numbers of moves at a time at the opponent's discretion, followed by an equal number by the opponent.  The author wrote to a friend: "Super-checkers is going to be a great success.  I have met four more people who consider it preposterous."


Modern Variants

Checkers to the MAX (Stanley Druben), 1992
The board starts empty.   Players alternate either placing a new checker on a vacant square on their first three rows, or moving a checker already placed.

Coronet (Chris Huntoon), 2012
An 8x8 variant with both orthogonal and diagonal movement, with 21 pieces per side arranged in a triangle in opposite corners.   Promotion is only in the single square in the opposite corner.   Implemented in Zillions.   This article on BoardgameGeek gives a number of Huntoon's inventions.

Dameo (Christian Freeling)
An 8x8 draughts variant using the whole board, with king movement in all eight directions.   Checkers can only move straight or diagonally forward, but can perform a linear jump, passing over one or more adjacent friendly pieces in any of the three directions (this is equivalent to shifting a whole row of adjacent pieces one square in the same direction).   Kings cannot perform a linear jump, nor be jumped over.   Captures are orthogonal only, but in any direction (checkers by short leap, kings by long leap).  The tactics of the game are rich, and draws are infrequent.  Two kings can always win against one king, regardless of the position and which player is to move.   The Bibliography lists an excellent introductory book by Aleh Tapalnitski, Meet Dameo!, which is available for free download. 

Give and Take (Christopher Elis)
This is a variant of Turkish draughts with the same general rules and opening position, but there are two new rules which make the game rich in tactics.   The first new rules is that captures are only compulsory in one instance: when a piece is moved so that it can be captured, the opponent must immediately capture it, and continue to capture if possible (this is the Give and Take of the title).   A king which captures must land on a square permitting another capture if possible.   The second rule is that a pawn which is a player's only piece instantly becomes a king.   John McCallion published an account in NOST-Algia 339, and a feature article in Games Magazine (May 1999, pp. 56-57).  It was also discussed in Eteroscacco 62.

Giveaway Checkers (The Losing Game, Anticheckers, etc.)
This is the misère variant of checkers: the object is to lose all of your pieces.   This can be played with any variant of the normal game with compulsory captures.   Recreational Mathematics Magazine volume 1, number 2 (April 1961) gave a 56-move solution to a straight checkers problem (Loser's Checkers) where White (with a full set of checkers) must win by forcing a single Black king at 7 to capture all 12 men.    It was a popular game in NOST, and has been widely played in German (i.e. Brazilian) and Russian draughts.

The Good-for-Nothings (Les Vauriens)
V.R. Parton devised a game (first published in the book by Boyer and Parton) combining regular and giveaway checkers.  It is played like International 10x10 draughts, but the five checkers on each player's back row are replaced by Good-for-Nothings, which move and capture like normal checkers, but lose the game if forced to promote.   The goal is to lose all five of your good-for-nothings; you can also win by capturing all of your opponent's regular checkers, or by forcing an opposing good-for-nothing to reach your back row and promote.  Schmittberger describes this in New Rules for Classic Games, and suggests that it can be played on an 8x8 board as well.  ItsYourTurn implements it with American rules as Mule Checkers.

Heaven and Hell Toroidal Checkers
Frank Cunliffe sent me rules for this very interesting game from a one-page posting on a Princeton computer network written by Tobias D. Robison, who learned the game in 1958 from Joe Tamargo.   [Can anyone shed any more light on the origins of this game?]  The game starts in the normal 8x8 position, and checkers and kings move and capture as normal.  However, the board is toroidal (doughnut-shaped): the two end ranks are adjacent, as well as the leftmost and rightmost ranks.   The dark squares are referred to as Heaven, the light squares (initially all empty) as Hell.   Checkers do not promote by reaching the last rank; kings can be created only by capture.  When a piece is jumped, it is shifted horizontally (along its rank) to the jumping player's left, to the first available square of the opposite color which is either vacant or occupied by a single checker of the same color (in which case it creates a king).   A king which is jumped can only be shifted to an empty square.    If no squares are available, the jumped piece goes into Limbo (off the board and permanently out of play).  Once a player has pieces in both Heaven and Hell, they may play in either, but a capturing move must be made if available anywhere (pieces jumped in Hell shift back into Heaven).   The object is to get all of the opponent's pieces out of Heaven.  (As Robison puts it, you are simultaneously playing regular checkers in Heaven and losing checkers in Hell).    I passed the information to John McCallion, who wrote a feature article for Games World of Puzzles May 2012 (pp. 66-67), including a sample game.

Hexdame (Christian Freeling)
International Draughts on an order-5 hexagonal board, with 16 checkers per side.  Rules are given on pp. 183-184 of New Rules for Classic Games. 

Kiwi Checkers (John Bosley)
This is a variant which uses the shogi mechanism of dropping (re-entering captured pieces).  When pieces are captured, they are added to the capturing player's reserve, and can be dropped 1, 2, or 3 at a time onto vacant squares or onto friendly pieces; stacks of up to three pieces are allowed, named after birds from the inventor's native New Zealand.   Single (kiwi) and double (tui) pieces move as regular checkers; triple (moa) pieces as kings.   Checkers which reach the back rank are not kinged; they are immobile until pieces are played from the reserve to form a Moa (stack of three).    Captures are mandatory and the maximum number of captures is required.   A drop constitutes a move and is only allowed when no captures are available.   Kiwi Checkers was first published in 1990 in NOST-Algia 319, and briefly described in WGR10 in 1994 (p.29).

March Hare Checkers (Chris Huntoon), 2012
Application of V.R. Parton's March Hare Chess to 10x10 International Checkers.   After Black's first move, each move consists of moving a friendly piece followed by an opposing piece (captures mandatory as usual).   A player reduced to one or two pieces loses.  Implemented in Zillions.

Sleeping Beauty Draughts (Ralf Gering)
Published in Abstract Games 14 (Summer 2003, pp.25-26), this is a modern variant designed to make draws impossible.  Rules are as Anglo-American checkers, but men promote to ladies, which can capture either as regular kings (shortleaping), or by replacement (as the chess Fers, one square diagonally).   A player may only have one lady at a time; additional promotions are to sleeping beauties, which remain stationary (unable to capture or be captured) until a player loses their only lady, at which point a sleeping beauty can be awakened.    Full rules and five sample problems are available in the online issue.

Combinations of Chess and Checkers


                     Initial position in Cheskers

Cheskers (Solomon W. Golomb), 1947
This is a combination of chess and checkers, invented in 1947 by Solomon W. Golomb, of pentominoes fame.   The board and opening position are exactly as in checkers, except that the four first rank checkers are replaced by: a Bishop at a1/h8 (which moves exactly as in chess, capturing by replacement rather than by leaping), two Kings at c1/e1/d8/f8 (which move exactly like kings in checkers), and a Cook at g1/b8 (which moves like the Camel in chess variants, to the opposite corner of a 2x4 rectangle, capturing by replacement).  [Knights are used for the Cooks in both diagrams and play.]  The second and third-rank pieces are Pawns, which move and capture exactly as checkers; multiple captures are as usual.  If captures by Pawns and/or Kings are available, a capturing move is mandatory, but may be by Bishop or Cook if available.  Capturing by Bishop or Cook is always optional.  Pawns which reach the last rank promote to Bishop, Cook, or King.   The object is to capture all of the opponent's kings.   A stalemated player loses.   This was a popular variant game in the Knights of the Square Table.    

Chess-Draughts (Henry Richter, 1883)
Not really a checkers variant; although play is on the black squares only, capture is by replacement rather than leaping.   Each side has 6 Pawns (moving and capturing one square diagonally forward, and promoting to Knight on the last rank), one Lady (one square diagonally in any direction), and one Knight (like a bishop in chess).  The object is to capture the opposing Lady.

Commercial Variants

Blue and Gray (Henry Busch and Arthur Jaeger), 1903
Checkers variant played on the intersections of an 8x8 board (i.e. 9x9 intersections) with 17 guards and a captain on each side.  The board has a specially marked path from the starting square of both captains to the center of the board.   The object is to reach the center with the captain.  Described by Sid Sackson in A Gamut of Games.

Camelot (George S. Parker), 1930
One of the most renowned commercial variants of checkers, invented by the founder of Parker Brothers.   It originally appeared as Chivalry in 1887, then as Camelot in 1930.   It is played on a vaguely octagonal board of 160 squares (12 wide and 16 deep, with the first three ranks at each end reduced to 2, 8, and 10 squares), with ten men and four knights per side.   There are several different kinds of moves, some of them similar to Halma.   It was briefly republished in 1985 as Inside Moves, without the medieval imagery.   Other variants have been published by Parker Brothers, and unofficial variants have also appeared.  Wikipedia has a good description, including a sample game from the 2009 World Championship.   There is also a World Camelot Federation.  

King's Court (Christopher Wroth), 1986
Checkers variant on an 8x8 diamond-shaped board, which starts full except for the 4x4 central area.  Pieces move and jump as kings, and can also jump friendly pieces without capturing.   Each player moves one piece into the central area: the first player to eliminate all of the opponent's central pieces wins.

Quick Checkers (Amerigames International), 1998
A commercial 6x6 version (6 pieces per side) designed to teach children how to play.   The other side of the board has a standard 8x8 board.

Multiplayer Variants
Three- and four-handed versions of checkers (with each player moving in a different direction) are too numerous to mention them all (similar chess variants have existed for a century or more).   A number of examples can be found in Boyer and Parton's book, including triangular and hexagonal boards.   A three-handed game on a triangular board was patented in 1888 by John Hyde (see Provenzo, Play It Again, in the Abstract Bibliography).  Four-handed commercial examples include Robert King's Intense Checkers (1991), on an 8x8 board with four 3x8 wings added; Elmer C. Pearson's Fourhanded Checkers (1974), on an 11x11 board with corner squares removed, and 9 checkers per side.   Three-handed versions include Megacheckers (MegaGames), for three players on an oddly-shaped board with 12 checkers per side, En Garde (Mynd Games, Northern Games, 1986), on a nine-sided board, and Yorel Game Company's Treckers (1981), on a hexagonal board for 2 or 3 players, with five levels of play.   Board Game Geek has details on many other commercial checkers variants.

Distant relatives of checkers
To keep this guide to a reasonable size, I have omitted several families of games:
(1) Games where captured pieces are absorbed into a stack, such as the traditional Russian game Bashni (Columns), and its later offshoots like Emmanuel Lasker's Laska, and Christian Freeling's hexagonal variant Emergo.  Winning Moves' King Me includes a variant called Stack'Em Checkers in the same family.   David Pritchard, in both The Family Book of Games and Five Minute Games, mentions Alvin Paster's game of Pasta, which combines Laska and Checkers.   There are also games where jumped pieces are flipped as in Reversi.   The New Complete Hoyle describes a variant called Stack-Up Checkers (credited to Mark Eudey and Stillman Drake).
(2) Games in which there is no capturing (Halma and its relatives like Chinese Checkers, and checkerboard variants such as Pyramid Checkers), where the object is to move all of your checkers into the opponent's starting area.     
(3) Games of the Fox and Geese and Tafl families, which have unbalanced forces and different goals, and in which neither side, or sometimes only one side, can capture.

Konane (Hawaiian Checkers)
A Hawaiian game with 32 pieces per player, which fill the entire board in alternation (that is, black pieces start on what would be the black squares and vice versa, though the board is uncheckered and traditionally consists of pits dug into a stone board, with white pieces of coral and black pieces of lava).   Two adjacent pieces, usually near the center, are removed.  Not really a checkers variant, since pieces can't make non-capturing moves: captures are mandatory and orthogonal only; multiple captures are not mandatory and are allowed in only one direction per turn.   The last person able to make a capture wins.


Notation and Diagrams
In traditional Anglo-American notation, the playable squares are numbered from 1-32, starting at the upper left corner from the first player's viewpoint.   Black moves first from the top half of the board.  Moves are designated by the starting and finishing square separated by dashes (11-15) or spaces in older books (11 15); sometimes captures are noted by x or : (11-15 22-18 15x22).  Some older books (e.g. Anderson, Baker, Kear) which present moves in vertical columns may have dashes (sometimes long) in Black's moves and spaces (or double dots) in White's, to make the pairs of moves easier to see.  International Draughts also uses numerical notation with the numbers 1-50 (x for captures), with White moving first from the bottom half of the board.   Standard algebraic notation is used in Russian and Turkish Draughts (necessary in Turkish, since all 64 squares are used).   Portable Draughts Notation is a text-based notation which is both human and machine readable, and has options for many different variants.    It supports annotations as well as information on when and where and by whom a game was played, and uses traditional numeric notation with x for captures.   It was devised by Adrian Millett (based on the existing Portable Games Notation) for his programs Sage and Dynamo, and has been adopted by many other draughts programs.


                   Numbered Board for 8x8 checkers

Software

Aurora Borealis Draughts by Alexander Svinn
A powerful and flexible program with options for 14 variants (all of the major variants, even Turkish and Frisian).

CheckerBoard by Martin Fierz
A very versatile program with its own strong playing engine (called Cake), opening book, endgame databases, fine graphics, and facilities for reading and saving games in PDN and positions in FEN formats.   It also acts as an interface to other programs like Kingsrow.

Chinook by Jonathan Schaeffer et al.
At one time the strongest 8x8 checkers program, which won several matches against top players and in 2007 was used to prove that the unrestricted Anglo-American 8x8 game is a draw with best play.   Even early versions were notable for large endgame databases.   The latest version can be played over the web; the website has more details about Chinook, and its endgame databases can be downloaded.   Schaeffer's book One Jump Ahead has even more detail.   Today, however, Kingsrow and Cake are regarded as the strongest programs.

Colossus Draughts by Martin Bryant
A very strong program which won a human tournament in England in 1990, and later that year defeated an early version of Chinook to win the 2nd Computer Olympiad.  Colossus was the first program with a large opening book (including original research, correcting published play).   Bryant later joined the development team for Chinook.

Dalmax Checkers
Android application with customizable rules, with presets for 12 different variants.   I have not see this.

Kingsrow by Ed Gilbert
Powerful modern program able to play Anglo-American, International, and Italian checkers.   It includes large databases of both openings and endgames.   One of the most interesting pages on the site is an analysis of every possible four- and five-move sequence: Kingsrow assesses 542 out of 794 four-move sequences and 1364 out of 2700 five-move sequences as drawable.   This includes odd sequences like the Charleston line 9-14 21-17 14x21 22-18 5-9?, where Black's poor third move is the only one which allows White to draw what is usually a lost opening.

Online Diagram Maker
Many of the diagrams in this booklet were made with this web-based package, which is easy to use and has a large variety of options.  It also has modules for chess and fairy chess diagrams.

Straight Checkers Gold by Al Lyman
Checkers tutorial program formerly available at www.checkerworld.com.

Zillions of Games
A versatile software package for Windows, able to play an enormous range of board games, particularly chess and checker variants and other abstracts, with a programmable system.    The standard package has 19 variants of checkers built in; the website contains hundreds of games programmed by users.

Modern programs for playing checkers (as well as other abstract board games like chess and reversi) generally have three main parts:
(1) An opening book, consisting of thousands of opening variations with evaluations
(2) A middlegame engine, which searches the game tree of a position as deeply as possible.  Ideally it wants to reach an endgame position with a favorable (known) result; if not, it must evaluate each position numerically to select the best line of play.
(3) An endgame database, containing millions of positions, evaluated as wins, draws, or losses, with a method for navigating the database to reach the best result possible (a win if one is available; a draw otherwise if possible; otherwise the hardest possible win for the opponent).

Bibliography

Most of this bibliography covers Anglo-American checkers, and nearly all of the books listed are in English (there are numerous books in Russian, Dutch, and French on other variants of checkers).   It is nearly impossible, and certainly impractical, to try and list every book and magazine devoted to checkers.    The largest collection of checkers books is probably the John Caldwell/Irving Windt Checker Books Collection, assembled by Don Deweber, which is now located at the Loras College Library in Dubuque, Iowa.   It has well over 7000 books, pamphlets, and magazines.  I have tried to identify the most important and frequently cited books, particularly those considered standards in the field, and everything I can find by the most important and prolific authors such as Boland, Ryan, and Wiswell.   General books on games with sections on checkers are omitted, with a few exceptions.  Nowadays there are a number of very poor self-published books (either print-on-demand or in Kindle format), which are not listed here.

Some of the works listed here are in my own collection.   As usual, pictures of the cover indicate books which are highly recommended.   Basic bibliographic information on other books has been gathered from a variety of sources, including Call's The Literature of Checkers, Google Books, WorldCat, HathiTrust, the Library of Congress, Bookfinder, Amazon, Biblio, ABEBooks, Alibris, and eBay, and from online reviews on Checker Maven and Start Checkers.  Some books are available online from Internet Archive and other sources: some for download, others for online reading only.  

Call, William Timothy -- The Literature of Checkers, 1908, Call, New York, 72 pp., $1.00
  Bibliography of 227 books and magazines in chronological order from 1756 (Payne) to 1908, with index.
Lovell, Kenneth -- Draughts Books of the 20th Century, 1990, Damier Books, 91 pp., spiralbound, ISBN 095154330X
  Published in a limited edition of 100 copies; out of print and very rare.  The author compiled it to update Call's The Literature of Checkers.   The book contains 451 entries, of which I have only seen a few.

Anglo-American Checkers (Draughts)
  
Introductory Works

Boland, Ben -- Checkers For The Millions, 1939, Boland, Brooklyn, 36 pp., paperback
  Basic lessons in the Dyke formation, traps and shots, and endgames.   Republished two years later as The Game of Checkers (see A.J. Mantell below).

Chernev, Irving -- The Compleat Draughts Player, 1981, Oxford University Press, 352 pp., paperback, ISBN 978-0192175878
  Guide for beginning and intermediate players, covering most aspects of the game (except for two- and three-move restriction), with hundreds of diagrams (readable although the publishers chose to print with the pieces on dark squares).   Chapter 6, Logical Draughts, Move by Move, plays through two illustrative games with annotations of every move.  Chapter 12, 100 Traps in the Opening, has examples from almost every traditional opening.   There are dozens of annotated games and problems, biographies of some notable players, history, and a short bibliography.   Surprisingly uncommon and expensive for a comparatively recent book.

Grover, Kenneth M., and Tom Wiswell -- Let's Play Checkers, 1940, David McKay, 1972, Tartan, 188 pp., paperback
Hopper, Millard -- An Invitation to Checkers, 1940, Simon and Schuster, 190 pp., hardback, $2.50
  Excellent introductory book covering tactics, openings, and endgames.   Also in paperback as How To Play Winning Checkers, 1943, Pocket Books.
Hopper, Millard -- Win At Checkers, 1941, A.S. Barnes, 1956, Dover, 109 pp., paperback, ISBN 0-486-20363-8, $2.50
Hopper, Millard F. -- The Major Tactics of Checkers, 1934, New York, 32 pp.
  Booklet based on a series of lectures given by Hopper on radio station WNYC.   Covers openings (including what Hopper calls the Forcing System), problems, and sample games.   Diagrams are given only on the last page, which presents 10 problems.

Landry, T.A., and L. Stephens -- Draughts, An Introduction to Championship Play, 1984, London Draughts Association, ISBN 0-9509762-0-2
Lees, James -- Lees' Guide to the Game of Draughts or Checkers, 1893, New Edition Revised and Enlarged by J.W. Dawson, n.d., David McKay, 208 pp., hardback, $0.75

MacIntyre, Charles Coughlin -- Million Moves of Checkers, Your Study Guide To Scientific Play, 2023, 279 pp., paperback, ISBN 979-8376864920, $15.95
   Print-on-demand book by a Canadian enthusiast.   The publication date says 2023, but it was assembled over decades: the section on openings only covers the 137 pre-170 openings; elsewhere he refers to Ron King as the current World Champion, which places it no later than 2014.   Poorly organized: no index or real table of contents, badly printed diagrams, and quite a few typos and other minor errors (e.g. page 68 and 149 are the same; part of the opening table on p. 25 is misaligned, making the names and moves match up incorrectly).   Still worthwhile, with useful information on tactics, endgames, and openings.   Many anecdotes about players both famous and not, and a listing of 70 books and magazines.

Mantell, A.J. -- The Game of Checkers, Learn To Play Expertly In Four Easy Lessons, 1941, Padell, 34pp., cardboard cover
   One bookdealer listing has Boland as co-author, but my copy does not show this.   Mantell bought the publishing rights to Checkers for the Millions from Boland.   There are errors in placement of the arrows on the diagrams on page 16.

Patterson, W. -- How To Play Checkers, 1927, Haldeman-Julius, 64pp. paperback
   Number 1183 in the famous series of Little Blue Books.   Not dated, but 1182 and 1184 both appeared in 1927.   Elementary instruction; the author recommends a very limited opening repertoire, and only the Old Fourteenth and Single Corner are covered in any detail.   The last 13 pages give 54 lines of the Old Fourteenth and 63 lines of the Single Corner, in tiny type, using the Alexandrian System (each variation in one column).   None of the other six openings are even mentioned; the author says not moving any of 1/2/3/6/7/10 in the opening will produce a good game for Black (and 23/26/27/30/31/32 for White).   Call lists several works from the 1870's by W. Patterson; possibly this is the same author and one of the same books (the page count of The Game of Draughts matches this book).

Reinfeld, Fred -- How To Win At Checkers, 1957, Sterling, 1967, Wilshire, 186 pp., paperback, $2.00
   Solid introductory book by a writer best known for chess books.   Republished under different titles, including How To Play Top-Notch Checkers, but to my knowledge this is Reinfeld's only book on checkers.

Reisman, Arthur -- Checkers Made Easy -- 1959, Key Publishing, New York, 107 pp., paperback
   Regarded as one of the best introductory books, recommended by Pask in Logical Checkers as the first book to read for beginners.
 
Ryan, William F. -- It's Your Move: A New Guide to the Game of Checkers, 1929, David McKay, 115 pp.
Ryan, William F. -- Scientific Checkers Made Easy, Revised Edition, 1934, 1945, John C. Winston, 205 pp., hardback
  About half the book presents example games with analysis; the remainder consists of problems, starting with what Ryan calls the Ten Major Positions (starting with the standard four, and ending with a three kings vs. two endgame).   Diagrams printed in black and red.

Spayth, Henry -- Checkers for Beginners, Revised Edition, 1927, Regan, 86 pp., paperback
Trott, George E., ed. by E.C. Whiting -- The Clapham Common Draughts Book, 1947 (unpub.), 1966, 1973 (English Draughts Association), 2014 (PDF), 57 pp.
   Beginner's guide to tactics, with emphasis on visualizing them in play.   Electronic reproduction (63 pp.) with corrections and full-color diagrams by Mel Tungate.


      

Tom Wiswell was a champion player, noted problemist, and prolific, best-selling author.   He gave the 11-15 opening the name Old Faithful in Learn Checkers Fast.
Wiswell, Tom -- Learn Checkers Fast, 1946, David McKay, 1972, Tartan, 208 pp., paperback, $1.95
Wiswell, Tom -- Checkers In Ten Lessons, 1953, 1959, A.S. Barnes, 126 pp., hardback, $2.95
   Lesson 2, Standard Openings and Games, was written with the assistance of Marion Tinsley, widely regarded as the greatest player of all time.   Includes a useful bibliography.  Oddly, Lesson 4, Charting Your Course, the section on two-move openings, refers to the 11-16 opening move as Paisley, using Bristol as the specific term for 11-16 24-20 (modern usage, including Lesson 2 of the same book, calls all of the 11-16 openings Bristol).    Reprinted in 1971 by Wilshire as Checkers Made Easy.    Portions were also reprinted as part of a combination book in 1953, Championship Chess and Checkers For All, by Wiswell and Larry Evans.
Wiswell, Tom -- The Complete Guide To Checkers, 1960, 1970, Collier, 128 pp., paperback, $1.95
  Originally Secrets of Checkerboard Strategy.  After showing the basic 3x2 and 4x3 king endings, Wiswell gives fifty problems (about two-thirds by him).  The game section starts with a chart of all 49 two-move openings (he comments that he sometimes plays the Charleston (21-17 against 9-14 or 10-14) as a handicap against weaker players.).   45 sample games with notes and variations are presented, with every two-move opening except the four he considered losses (the two Charleston openings, and 23-19 against 11-16 or 12-16).   The final section of the book is a ten page glossary, which includes a complete listing of the 142 three-move ballots permitted at the time, indicating that 13 favor Black and 88 White.
Wiswell, Tom -- The Science of Checkers and Draughts, 1973, A.S. Barnes, 136pp., 173 pp., hardback, ISBN 0-498-01600-5, $5.95
  Primarily a collection of problems by the author and 28 other noted problem composers: the main section is titled 101 End-game and Mid-game Problems.   Internet Archive has the large-print edition which can be read online.
Wiswell, Tom, and Jules Leopold -- The Wonderful World of Checkers and Draughts, 1981, A.S. Barnes, 176 pp., paperback, ISBN 978-0498022586
  The first section consists of short chapters (one or two pages) on important topics such as The Move, The Dog Hole, Corners and Dyke Squares, and basics of openings and endings.  The remainder of the book consists of 50 problems, mostly composed, followed by 50 problems from actual games (the moves leading to each position are included, and these problems are in order of openings, from 9-13 22-18 to 12-16 24-19.   Full solutions are given as usual.  The only negative is that the book appears to have been published and printed on the cheap: there are only three diagrams in the first section; positions are given by listing the squares with pieces/kings, and must be set up on a numbered board.  The pages are large, but the margins are much larger and the print smaller than necessary.  Leopold wrote the puzzle and game section of Yank, the Army magazine, during World War 2, and wrote a book in 1943 called At Ease!, which includes a section on checkers.

Available in the Internet Archive and elsewhere
Banks, Newell Williams -- Banks' Scientific Checkers, 1929, Morris-Systems, 201 pp.
  Detailed textbook by a world champion player.  Contains sections on Visualization (Banks was one of the greatest blindfold players ever), and on Banks' own invention of Eleven-Man Ballot (including his eight game match with Asa Long, which Banks won with a win and seven draws).  The game section includes examples from all 47 playable two-move openings.

Call, William Timothy -- Midget Problems, All the Ideas in Positions of 2 vs. 2 Pieces in Checkers, 1913, Call, Brooklyn, 72pp., $0.50
  Early attempt to analyze and categorize endgame positions with 2 pieces per side.  The author looked at around a thousand positions from the literature.
Call, William Timothy -- Vocabulary of Checkers, 1909, 201pp., $2.00
  Detailed encyclopedia of terms used in checkers, including names of openings (some of which have faded from use).   One of the most useful books ever written on checkers, as it also contains a wealth of historical information.
Gould, Joseph -- Gould's Problems, Critical Positions, and Games, Third Edition, 1895, 382 pp., hardback
  Enormous collection of problems from various authors, including W.J. Wray's Bridge Position Problems.   Along with Lyman, the most important problem collections until the works of Ben Boland.
Livermore, S.T. -- Checkers Improved; The New Board, 1888, Cazse, Lockwood & Brainard, Hartford, 71 pp.
  Standard collection of games and variations, mainly to promote Livermore's uncheckered board, consisting of numbered dots connected by grid lines (an orthogonal board turned 45 degrees); the same idea can be seen in Golomb's article on Cheskers, and dates back at least to J.G. Lallement in 1802 (see Call's Vocabulary of Checkers; Call did his own version called the Roundsquare board).   Livermore added many fanciful new names for opening variations, which did not catch on.
Lyman, Henry Darius -- The Game of Draughts With Selected Problems, Richardson, Worcester, 1881, 421 pp., hardback
  A small collection of games sorted by opening., followed by over a thousand problems with solutions, from well over 200 composers.    Includes 16 ornamental problems (under Curiosities), where the pieces are arranged in geometric shapes or other interesting configurations, plus eight problems by Thomas Dale in Giveaway Checkers.
Mitchell, David A. -- Checkers, 1918, Penn, Philadelphia, 183pp., hardback
  General strategy, openings, endgames, a selection of Brilliant Games, and a selection of problems with solutions.
Payne, William -- An Introduction to the Game of Draughts, 1756, 67 pp.
  The first book on draughts in English.  50 games with no annotation except footnotes indicating a losing move (modern practice reverses this, using an asterisk (star move) to denote the only move to win or hold a draw).   Includes six critical draws, eight critical wins, and 24 strokes.   No diagrams except for a numbered board.  Game number 1 shows the famous Goose Walk trap.
Ryan, William F. -- Tricks, Traps & Shots of the Checkerboard, 1950, David McKay, 151 pp.
  Collection of checker traps, mostly illustrated by games, sorted by openings.
Salot, Bill -- Slocum Strokes, 2011, Salot, 490 pp., PDF
  Collection of over 100 problems by George H. Slocum, with annotations (including similar positions) and references.   Valuable information by Slocum and other notables on techniques of composing checkers problems.  Assembled by Slocum with help from "a Coterie of Checker Problemists and Bibliophiles".   Professionally typeset, with diagrams from the CheckerBoard program.  Available on Internet Archive's Wayback Machine.

Scattergood, D. -- The Game of Draughts or Checkers, 1859, A.L. Magilton, Philadelphia, unnumbered, about 38pp.
  Analysis of many of the standard openings, and 12 critical positions.  Oddly includes a game with the Edinburgh opening, but completely omits Denny and Dundee: "The opening moves, 10,14 and 12,16 are not noticed in this work, as they are regarded as weak."

Stearns, Lyman Marshall -- The Draughts Marvel and Twentieth Century Checker Compendium, 1909, Draughts Marvel, Manchester, NH, 154pp.
   Anthology of sketches of dozens of notable players of the day, with photographs, problems, and games.  Stearns was the champion of New Hampshire, and editor of The Checker World magazine.   Like many books of the era, it was paid for ahead of time by subscribers (well over 200 for this book).  The Library of Congress has scanned one of their copies, numbered 302. 

Sturges, Joshua -- Guide To The Game of Draughts, With Critical Situations, 1800, 53pp.
  Collection of 54 games and 140 critical positions, expanding on the work of Payne.  One of its claims to fame is that the opening the Old Fourteenth is named after its appearance as game number 14 in both Payne and Sturges, although those books both give the move order 11-15 22-17 8-11 17-13 4-8 23-19.   In 1808 Sturges published a collection of problems, mostly from the 1800 edition, with full diagrams printed in black and red, and expanded solutions.   Sturges's guide was revised and expanded many times, notably by:
(1) George Walker in 1835, 87 pages, with 69 games and 150 positions; this was reprinted in Bohn's 1850 Handbook of Games.
(2) R. Martin in 1858, about 106 pp., with similar contents to Walker, plus a short section on 10x10 Polish Draughts with two sample games, and a brief outline of the Losing Game.  This was the first American edition, and the first to give an index of opening names.    Some of the games are still being presented with White moving first: Game 68, a Second Double Corner, starts 22.18 9.14 18.9 5.14 instead of 11-15 24-19 15-24 28-19.
(3) Julian Darragh Janvier in 1881, 152 pages, with 20 games showing 20 openings, and 172 critical positions, plus corrections to earlier editions and other sources; the section on Polish and Losing Draughts is omitted.    This is much better organized than earlier editions: Janvier has converted all of the games to Black moving first, labeled them with opening names, and sorted them neatly into separate columns for each variation, with sources for each line.   He uses * to denote improved moves, not necessarily star moves as understood today.
(4) J.A. Kear in 1895, 268pp., by which time it contained example games for 27 different openings with 1466 variations, and over 200 positions with solutions.   Kears also includes short appendices giving the rules for five regional variants (Turkish, Spanish, Polish, German, and Italian); these were expanded in the 1904 edition.    Kear also co-wrote the Encyclopedia of Draughts (see below in Openings)

Sweet, I.D.J. -- The Elements of Draughts, or Beginners' Sure Guide, 1859, 1872, De Witt, New York, 108pp.
  Early American book by the draughts editor of the New York Clipper, the first US newspaper to feature a checkers column.  Elementary guide with the basics of endgames, openings, "the move" (on which the author spends 17 pages, without a single diagram), and a collection of sample games.

Walker, Walton W. -- "Inside" Checkers, 1922, David McKay, Philadephia, 203 pp.
  29 games and 36 problems, annotated almost move by move.  Many traps are described.

Advanced strategy

Oldbury, Derek  -- Move Over, 1957, 2001, 68 pp., digital
  Brilliant, idiosyncratic book by the former World Champion.  Oldbury uses his own notation based on the diagonals of the board, but there are no annotated games, just analysis of 71 positions.   Beautifully typeset in 2001 by Mathias Kegelmann, and available at Bob Newell's Checker Maven site.  Richard Pask and Richard White published a supplement in 2005 (also available at The Checker Maven), with commentary, and solutions to the 22 problems at the end of Oldbury's book.

Pask, Richard -- Complete Checkers: Insights, 2nd edition, 2024, Avi Gobbler, Honolulu, 614 pp., paperback, ISBN 978-1542464369, $24.99
  One-volume compilation of Pask's five volume series Logical Checkers (Checkers for the Novice; Checkers for the Freestyle Expert; Checkers for the Two-Move Expert; Checkers for the Three-Move Expert (Balanced Ballots; Unbalanced Ballots)).

Endgames and Problems



Ben Boland was a renowned endgame specialist as well as a problemist.  Marion Tinsley considered Boland the best writer on checkers.  

Boland, Ben -- Familiar Themes in the Scientific Game of Checkers, 1938, Boland, Brooklyn, 60 pp., paperback
  Boland's first book, regarded by some as his best.  A very detailed catalog of endgame positions, annotated with references to published play and examples from actual games.   Most of the positions have four pieces or fewer for each player, and each theme is illustrated by multiple examples to help the reader understand the concept, rather than just memorizing positions and lines of play.   Over 150 diagrams.
Boland, Ben -- Famous Positions, 2nd edition, 1940, 1965, Boland, Brooklyn, 204 pp.
  Large collection of problems, both standard endgames and positions from games, annotated in detail.
Boland, Ben -- Masterpieces in the Game of Checkers, 1947, Boland, Brooklyn, 208 pp.
  Viewable online.  Collection of endgame problems, sorted into families of related problems.
Boland, Ben -- Corrections to Boland's Works, 1950, Boland, Brooklyn, manuscript, 45 pp.
Boland, Ben -- Bridges in the Game of Checkers, 1954, Boland, Brooklyn, 208 pp.
  Definitive work on bridge positions in checkers, with classification into 11 families, illustrated by games and problems.  
Boland, Ben -- Border Classics, 1957, Boland, Brooklyn, 112 pp.
  Endgame positions where some pieces are pinned on the sides of the board, divided into 16 classes, with detailed annotation.
Boland, Ben -- Checkers in Depth, 1974, Boland, Brooklyn, paperback, 200 pp.
 
Duffy, Joe Mexo -- Duffy's standard positions, showing the proper method of handling endings, 2 volumes, 1934, Duffy, Chicago, 1937, C.N. Caspar
  Extremely rare.   I have only seen Volume 1 (41 pp.), a detailed examination of First through Fourth Position.  Recommended by Pask in Logical Checkers.

Pike, Robert -- 101 Checker Puzzles, Official American Mensa Game Book, 2000, Sterling, 141 pp., wirebound, ISBN 0-8069-6080-9, $7.95
  Problems from opening to endgame, with diagrams and full solutions.


Collections of Games

Chamblee, Maurice -- Checkers and the Experts, 1949, Chamblee, 63 pp., paperback
  A detailed section on openings, including history of restriction, and an assessment of all 137 three-move ballots.   The remainder of the book contains all 30 games of the 1947 U.S. Junior Title match, won by Marion Tinsley over Chamblee, 3 wins to 2 with 25 draws.   Each game is annotated by either one of the two players, or one of a group of 12 renowned players and analysts, including Banks, Fortman, and Wiswell.
Dunne, Frank -- Draughts Praxis, or Modern Match Games, 2nd edition, revised, 1911, David McKay, Philadelphia, 259pp., hardback
  Collection of matches and tournaments played between 1901 and 1903, with annotations and a catalog of opening variations.   (See Other Variants below for an earlier book by Dunne).
 
Gould, Joseph, and others -- The Game of Draughts, Historic and Memorable Matches..., 1898, 311 pp., hardback
  Collection of 19th century games from various matches; very little annotation.



Moiseyev, Alex -- Sixth, Volume 1: The Way to the Crown, 2006, Torsing Plus, Kharkiv, 375pp., hardback, ISBN 966404-175-0
  Moiseyev became a grandmaster in both Russian and International draughts before switching to American checkers in 1996.   The title is a reference to Moiseyev being the sixth person to hold the championship of three-move restriction checkers (starting with Asa Long in 1934, who was succeeded by Hellman, Tinsley, Oldbury, and King).  The book contains all of Moiseyev's games from his successful World Championship matches against Ron King and Elbert Lowder, plus 50 of his games from other events.  All of the games are superbly annotated with references to published play, and in some cases private analysis: Moiseyev is very generous in giving credit to others.  Many of the games are supplemented by other games with the same opening, and there is an index of three-move ballots.   There is also plenty of information on endgames.  By luck I bought the last copy of a limited run of 500, directly from the author.

Ryan, William F., ed. Leonard L. Hall -- Big League Checkers, 1961, Hall, Los Angeles, 197 pp., hardback
  Annotated games from three of Ryan's matches.
Smith, Erroll A. -- Checker Classics, 1922, Stewart Kidd, Cincinnati, 165pp.
  Collection of annotated games.
Wiswell, Tom, and Millard Hopper -- Checker Kings in Action, 1952, David McKay, 160 pp., hardback, $2.75
   Collection of annotated games from the Wiswell-Hopper 1951 World Championship match in Go-As-You-Please.
Wiswell, Tom, and Robert L. Shuffett, M.D. -- America's Best Checkers, 1957, David McKay, New York, 177pp., hardback
  112 games from world championship matches in three-move restriction, annotated by a variety of expert players and analysts.  Includes an index of openings and biographies of the players and authors.    Hassell Street Books made a photographic reprint in 2021 (ISBN 9781013957574).

Chapters in Hoyles and other Compendia

Most games compendia are not worth listing here, as their sections on checkers or draughts give little more than the rules to a few variants.

Cady, Alice Howard -- Checkers, Spalding Home Library, Vol. 1 Num. 9, 1896, American Sports Publishing, New York, 57 pp.
  Elementary survey of checkers, with history, openings, and endgames.   I suspect this of being the source for the misstatement on the Second Double Corner in the New Complete Hoyle.  There is a section on the Losing Game with a sample game and a few problems.  The second half of the book covers Polish, Spanish, Italian, and Turkish Draughts, with openings, problems, and sample games (most of this comes from Dunne's 1890 Guide and Companion).   Cady wrote a series of books on various games, including backgammon, patience, dice and dominoes, and various card games including patience.

Morehead, Albert H., Richard L. Frey, and Geoffrey Mott-Smith -- The New Complete Hoyle, 1947, 1956, 1964, Garden City, New York, 740 pp., hardback
   Checkers (Draughts) is covered from pages 616-640, mostly the Anglo-American version, with a survey of basic strategy, trunk lines for the 47 playable two-move openings (which contain several typos), and five annotated games, including an example of three-move restriction.   A handful of variants (including Giveaway) are described.  The section on National Variants gives rules for five variants, but the terminology (e.g. Polish Draughts) is out of date, there is no mention of Pool Checkers or Russian Draughts, and the rules for German and Turkish Draughts are wrong.   The brief introductory section gets two names wrong, giving William Prynne for William Payne, and James Pillsbury for Harry Nelson Pillsbury.   See the historical notes on the Second Double Corner for another odd mistake.  [The 1991 edition, The New Complete Hoyle Revised, cut out the illustrative games and the variants other than the national ones, and failed to correct any of the cited mistakes, which have been there at least since 1956.]  
 

Openings

Anglo-American Checkers
Appendix 1 gives an outline of the openings in Anglo-American checkers.

Anderson, Andrew -- Anderson's Guide to the Game of Draughts, 1848, Lanark, 73 pp.
  Anderson's first edition is a collection of 55 games, with footnotes to alternate lines of play, with a result given for each line (draw or Black or White win).  There is one page of seven Critical Positions; there are no diagrams except a numbered board on page 6.   Some of the games are presented with White moving first, not unusual for the time.   A few opening names are listed at the bottoms of pages.  A relatively unimportant work compared to his groundbreaking Second Edition...

Anderson, Andrew -- The Game of Draughts Simplified, Second Edition, 1852, Glasgow, 154 pp.
  The author notes "... it may be looked on rather as a new work than a new edition."    This was the first publication of the Standard Laws, drawn up by Anderson after consulting with a number of clubs and leading players, and still mostly in force.  Anderson recommends using red and white pieces for better visibility.   A trunk game is given for each of fifteen openings, for which he lists names and their origins.  These are all still in use, although Bristol is now used to refer to all 11-16 openings, and Suter is now usually spelled Souter.   The book builds on the work of Payne, Sturgess, Hay, and Sinclair, with more than 20 other credited contributors.   He credits James Neilson with the idea of presenting every branch line in a separate column, which became standard in later books.  The book closes with a long explanation of The Theory of The Move by John Paterson.  Anderson's book was revised several times, notably by Robert McCulloch in 1878 and  Julian Darragh Janvier in 1881.

Denvir, John T. -- Denvir's Guide to Checkers, Third Edition, 1934, Denvir, 272 pp.
   82 annotated games, sorted by openings, with hundreds of variations.   Denvir was a prolific author and publisher, and his work is still frequently cited today.
Ginsberg, Louis C. -- Principles Of Strategy In The Game of Checkers, 1945, 2010, Ryan, 48 pp., paperback
   Examination of the Dyke formation, one of the most important landings.
Hester, Gordon -- Transposition Studies in 3-Move Checkers, n.d., 31pp., paperback
   41 positions and 113 annotated games, which can be reached from multiple openings (with index of openings).
Hill, James -- Hill's Synopsis of Draughts Openings, Fifth Edition, 1890, 1894, 1908, Warne, 49 pp., hardback
   58 annotated games sorted by opening.
Jensen, Anker -- Forced Checkers, 1921, Courtney, Los Angeles, 219pp., $2.00
  Selection of openings and problems, leaning towards forcing lines to limit the opponent's options, to reduce the amount of memorization needed.

Kear, James A., and Richard Atwell; revised by John Alexander -- The Encyclopedia of Draughts, 7 volumes, 4th Edition, 1901-1950, Kear, Bristol, c.512 pp., hardback
   Detailed guide to all 47 playable two-move openings.  The original seven volumes were published between 1901 and 1915, and revised several times thereafter.  Usually referred to as Kear's Encyclopedia in the literature (James A. Kear Sr. was co-author of the original editions.  His son was publisher of later editions).  Out of print and fairly expensive.   Viewable online at Internet Archive.

Ketchum, P.H. -- Checkers, The Handy Manual, 1923, Ketchum, Milwaukee, 48 pp., paperback
   Games and opening analysis for all of the traditional openings.

Reisman, Arthur -- Championship Checkers, The Pioneer System, Second Edition, 1942, American Photographic, Boston, 130 pp., hardback, $1.50
   Opening system which can be reached, by transposition, from almost a quarter of the 137 three-move ballots active in 1945.   Originally published in manuscript form by the author in 1936.   Also called How To Win At Checkers.

Robertson, John -- Guide to the Game of Draughts, 1888, Dick and Fitzgerald, New York, 308 pp., hardback
  Opening guide with over 3000 variations.

Tescheleit, M. Francis -- Master Play of the Draught Board, 1926-1933, E. Marlborough, London, 484 pp.
   Rare six volume series on openings: 1: Edinburgh, 2: Double Corner and Double Corner Dyke, 3: Denny, 4: Kelso, 5: Black Dyke, Boston, Douglas, Maid of the Mill, Pioneer, White Dyke and Switcher, 6: Single Corner.  The page numbers are numbered sequentially through the six volumes.  The moves are presented in columns; Tescheleit frequently uses X as a space-saving shortcut to indicate one or more pairs of forced exchanges.   This series was well-regarded in its day, although it covers only part of the 11-15 repertoire and none of the Bristol and Dundee openings.  Volume 6 was completed by J. M. Dallas.

Various Authors -- The British Draughts Player, 1883, 1896, 1906, 418 pp., hardback
   Articles on various openings, with annotated games.   William Strickland wrote the first articles in 1883, covering the traditional openings Old Fourteenth, Single Corner, Ayrshire Lassie, and Laird and Lady.  Other authors including Tescheleit added many other openings.   The Third Edition includes a brief description of two-move restriction, merely showing how the two-move ballots can transpose into standard openings.

Wendemuth, F.R. -- Wendemuth's Checker Companion, 1922, 168 pp., hardback
   Wendemuth was a champion player in Illinois, and edited the checker column in the Chicago Daily News.   He eventually became a publisher of checkers books.  This introductory guide opens with a lecture on checkers and its history by Harvey L. Hopkins.   The next part of the book consists of some basic problems and endgames, then a section of annotated games (the first few explain the purposes of many of the moves, useful for a beginner), including some opening traps (one of these was the Steel Stroke, a win in 1905 by Robert Stewart against Ajeeb, the fake chess and checkers automaton, which had a human player concealed inside).   Ralph D. Banks gives sample games in the four two-move barred openings (9-14/10-14 23-18, and 11-16/12-16 23-19).   P.H. Ketchum later gives analysis of the 12-16 23-19 opening, believing it to be a loss for White (this was proved correct in 2007 by Chinook).  Wendemuth himself gives original analysis of 9-13 22-18 11-16, believing it to be a loss for Black (this proved incorrect; the opening became known as The Wilderness 1 (a difficult draw) and was added to three-move restriction in 2003.)  The book concludes with a collection of 139 problems and solutions.

Three-Move Compilations
Case, Basil -- Three-Move Checkers, My Best, 1954, C.C.C Publishing, Los Angeles, c. 116pp., spiralbound
  Covers 27 of the 3-move openings, with corrections and improvements to published play.   Viewable online.
Churchill, Ernest R, C.O. Skaar, and Herbert Richter -- Churchill's Compilations, 1962-1986, mimeographed pages
  Ambitious attempt to collect all published play on the openings, published in monthly installments in unbound pages.  Lovell's entry says there were 322 main installments through the completion of 12-16 in August 1981, running over 2400 pages; the index alone runs 200 pages.   [Nowadays one would compile these in an electronic database.]
Denvir, John T. -- Three Move Guide to Checkers, 1936, 162pp., 2011, Coachwhip, ISBN 978-1616461027
Hall, L.L. -- Hall's Three-Move Manuscript, L.L. Hall, 1948, about 80 pp., hardcover
  Covers all 137 three-move openings of the time. "Containing 50 "Cooks" and Corrections By Basil Case and Other Works on the Three-Move Openings."
Hanson, Jesse B. -- Three Move Checker Chart, 1941, Hanson, pamphlet, 11pp.
Miller, William M. -- Miller's Three Move Checker Chart: A Synopsis of the 137 Three-Move Openings, 1946, Rex B. Wood, Gary, Indiana, 142 pp., hardback
  Frankly disappointing.  One page for each ballot, with 7-10 variants for each, and cross-references on transpositions.  No evaluations are given; most lines end with a bibliographic note referencing more than 20 other works, which is not very useful without a large library.  Miller uses *, contrary to modern practice, "to indicate the better move, not necessarily the only move."
Walker, L.D. -- Checkers Three Move Guide and Chart, a Compilation of Checker Games Selected From Thirty-Two Sources, 1958, Walker, 55pp., spiralbound, cardboard cover and pages
  Commentary on all 137 three-move openings, with one main line for each, and notes on transpositions.   A silly flaw is that each opening is a single column of moves, but split between two pages, which are on opposite sides of the same sheet instead of being on facing pages.   Each opening is described briefly by an expert (among them Banks, Fortman, Ryan, and Wiswell), and given a rating from 1 to 3 stars favoring either Black or White.

Modern works
Cayton, Dennis -- A Compilation of the Barred Openings, 1996, 1997
   Analysis of a number of three-move openings which may be losses for Black.   Most of them were tested in the ACF's Star Wars postal tournament, and analyzed by expert players and computers, including Chinook.  Seven had already been approved for postal play, and were added to the standard three-move deck in 2003.  



Fortman, Richard L. -- Basic Checkers: The First Twenty Moves, 1978-1983, 2010, CreateSpace, 504 pp., paperback, ISBN 978-1453619698, $30.00
  Single volume edition of Fortman's seven part series on the seven opening moves.   Comprehensive work covering the 144 three-move openings as of 1994; deeply annotated; no diagrams.   Used as a guide for creating the opening book of early versions of Chinook.   Not as comprehensive or up-to-date as Pask's Repertoire, but explains the ideas behind the moves, and has more historical content (a serious player should have both books).  Jim Loy published corrections in 2010 (see below).

Fraser, William R. -- The Inferno of Checkers, 1959, 2021, L.L. Hall, 212pp., hardback
Fraser walks the prospective student through what he calls the heaven of go-as-you-please, the purgatory of two-move restriction, and the hell of three-move restriction and eleven-man ballot, with 42 analyzed games.  Available from Coachwhip as an inexpensive e-book in EPUB format.

Hinkle, Brian -- A Guide to the Barred Openings

Loy, Jim -- Basic Checkers, Part 8, Corrections, 2010, Loy, 95 pp., PDF
  Electronic version of Jim Loy's corrections to Fortman's Basic Checkers.   Includes likely refutations of the Kentucky Glasgow and Old Paraffin openings.
Loy, Jim -- Transpositions, 2003, Loy, 46 pp., PDF
  Compilation of 34 important landings which can be reached from multiple three-move ballots, and a list of transpositions between different ballot openings.

Pask, Richard -- Complete Checkers: Repertoire, 3rd revised addition, 2019, Avi Gobbler, Honolulu, 711 pp., paperback, ISBN 978-1542464369, $24.99
  Now widely considered the definitive guide to three-move openings, covering all 156 ballots in detail.   Originally published in seven volumes as 21st Century Checkers.
Pask, Richard -- The Golden Dozen, The Twelve New Ballots, 2005, Checkered Thinking, 55 pp., ISBN 1-872796-22-2
  Analysis of the 12 three-move openings which were added in 2003 to the ACF's list of playable openings.
Pask, Richard -- Key Landings, 1990, Checkered Thinking, 49 pp., ISBN 1-872796-00-1
  Volume 3 of Total Checkers covers 25 landings (key positions in the late opening or early midgame, each of which can be reached from a variety of openings).   Some landings are balanced, other favor either Black or White.    Many can later develop into other landings.  
Pask, Richard -- Key Openings, 1999, Checkered Thinking, 90pp., ISBN 1-872796-15X
  Condensed guide to openings, starting with GAYP and continuing through two- and three-move ballots.  Includes indexes of landings and transpositions.

Reno, Carl W. -- The Work of the Pentium, Creating New Lines of G.A.Y.P. Play, Reno, n.d., about 115pp., paperback, plastic bound
  Analysis of many openings by computer (Checkers 3.0, Colossus, and Sage), cited in a number of references.   Plain typewritten manuscript, very light print, with no diagrams.  The author warns that many lines are computer generated and have not been tested in play.  Over 300 principal lines, plus annotated variations, and references to games and published play.  Very rare nowadays: it is not listed on Amazon, Google Books, Library of Congress, or Worldcat.    I managed to obtain a copy from eBay.

Ryan, William F. -- Championship Checkers Simplified, 1937, 2nd edition 1951, Kenmore
  Some history, followed by a detailed guide to the Ayrshire Lassie, Dodger (named by Ryan for his friend Sam Schiller), and Defiance openings.   The second edition is viewable at Internet Archive. 
Ryan, William F. -- The Modern Encyclopedia of Checkers, 1940, Ryan, 195pp., hardback
  Starts with an interesting biographical section, and closes with a selection of problems (especially featuring Tom Wiswell and Milton Johnson).  The bulk of the book is analysis of 11 three-move openings, starting with the Octopus, which was named by Ryan (32 variations, covering 27 pages!).

Individual Openings
Openings in draughts were already being analyzed in detail by the late 19th century (see Riley below for an extreme case).   Older opening compilations (into the early 20th century) use a system of presentation with each individual line of play given in a numbered vertical column, with branch lines indicated by footnotes giving the number of the column where a branch line continues.  (In the Alexandrian system, dots extend to variations on the same or a facing page.)    A short branch line may appear in the same column if there is room, but frequently a branch line may appear dozens of pages later.   Each line of play may be from an actual game, or published analysis of likely lines of play.  The bottom of each column usually has an actual or predicted game result (Black wins, Draw, or White win), and a source reference to the analyst (or book) who first published a variation, or the players involved if it came from a game).

Baker, E.T., rev. James P. Reed -- The Game of Draughts, The Alma Opening, 1888, 74pp.
  431 lines of the Alma opening (11-15 23-19; 8-11 22-17; 3-8) with some additional variations.
Boland, Ben -- White and Black Doctors, 1984, Boland, 112 pp., hardback
  Boland's only book on opening analysis.  I have not seen this, and it appears to be his rarest.
Bowen, Roland Edwin -- Cross Opening, 1878, Worcester, 196pp.
  1001 lines of the 11-15 23-18 Cross opening.  Includes a few transpositions from other lines.   The pages from 197-220 are blank except for ruled columns, presumably to allow the reader to add notes by hand on alternate lines.
Bowen, Roland Edwin, M.F. Clouser, ed. -- Fife Opening, 1886, Clouser, Philadephia, 65pp. plus blanks
  Similar to his book on the Cross; 600 opening lines.
Call, William Timothy -- Rambles with the Switcher, 1916, 73pp., $0.50
  Analysis of the 11-15 21-17 opening, mostly reviewing the existing literature.
Cantor, Conrad -- The Kentucky Glasgow, n.d., L.L. Hall, Los Angeles, 40pp., paperback
  Analysis of the Kentucky Glasgow defense: 11-15 23-19; 8-11 22-17; 11-16 25-22; 16x23 27x11; 7x16 32-27.  According to the author, "eliminating reams of hackneyed published play."  Also covers what he calls the Glasgow Refused, claiming Black wins after 11-15 23-19; 8-11 22-17; 11-16 26-23; 15-18!   Tom Wiswell's Complete Guide to Checkers calls the Kentucky sound, but Jim Loy claims a refutation in Basic Checkers: Corrections.
Denvir, John T., and Percy M. Bradt -- Second Double Corner Book, Part 1 and 2, 1891, Denvir, Chicago, 38 pp., hardback
  Over 500 variations of the Second Double Corner Opening, covering 11-15 24-19 15x24 28x19, followed by 9-14 or 8-11.  Parts 3 and 4 do not seem to have ever appeared.
Denvir, John T., -- Single Corner number 2, 1892, Denvir, Chicago, 122 pp., hardback
  Collection of games including "wild or irregular lines".   A 20 page pamphlet by Denvir on the Single Corner appeared earlier in 1892.
Doran, Peter -- Doran's Old 14th, 1936, Wendemuth, Chicago, 62 pp., paperback
  146 main variations of  the Old Fourteenth opening, with annotations (over 500 variations in all) and diagrams.   Reprinted in 2013 by Coachwhip (ISBN 978-1616461805).
Duffy, Joe Mexo -- Duffy's Single Corner, 1934, Frank R. Wendemuth, Chicago, 128 pp., hardback
  134 main variations of the Single Corner Opening, with annotations and many diagrams.
Durgin, Edwin A. -- Durgin's Single Corner, 1894, John T. Denvir, 148pp., $0.50
  Durgin was draughts editor for the Boston Globe.  In addition to Durgin's analysis, there are independent sections by several other analysts.  The book "also contains Swan and Adamson's line of the Switcher".  The last 12 pages (149-160) are listings and reviews for books published by Denvir, one of the major checker publishers of the era.

Hester, Gordon -- Tournament Checkers: Defiance System, 1960, 142 pp., hardback
Riley, Thomas J. -- The Game of Draughts, The 31-27 Line in "The Souter", 1892, Laurence Gilbertson, Nottingham, 36 pp.
  Analysis of an alternate 20th move(!) in the Souter opening, reprinted from the West Lothian Courier.    The Open Checkers Archive has one game using this opening, compared to 109 games with the book move 26-23.
Schaefer, A., M.D. -- The Game of Checkers, Paisley, 1886, Evening Reporter, Woonsocket
Shearer, Henry F. -- Studies of the Two-Move Openings, 3 volumes, 1914, 68 pp. total
  Rare: I have only seen it mentioned in The Draughts Review, which puts the publication date at 1914.  Shearer was a well-regarded analyst, who edited a column in the Dundee People's Journal, and published the Modern Draughts Handbook in 1912, which covered the 47 two-move openings.   These pamphlets were evidentally updated versions of a few of those.  Part 1 covers 9-13 21-17 and 9-14 24-20.  Part 2 covers 10-14 22-18 and 11-16 21-17 (which Shearer calls Leeds, supposedly following Dunne's 1890 Guide, but Dunne actually applied the name Leeds to 11-16 22-17; the two openings can converge if Black moves 9-13).   Part 3 covers 9-13 22-18.  I do not know if there were any volumes after the initial three.   Shearer believed the Edinburgh Single (9-13 22-18 11-15) was a loss for Black (pp. 67-68); see the historical notes.
 
Stearns, Lyman M. -- The Granite State Checker Series, 3 volumes, 1889-1890, Stearns, Derry Depot, 52 pp.
  Mostly analysis of the Laird and Lady (by Stearns) and the Single Corner (by Chris Pickering).
Stiles, John B. -- Stiles' Checker Guide, Part One, 12-16 Openings
Wood, Rex B. -- Wood's Checker Studies, Number Two, 9-14 Openings, 2nd ed., September 1939, Wood, 106pp., paperback, $0.50
  Analysis of all 19 three-move openings (as of 1939) arising from the Double Corner opening.


Computers
Bryant, Martin -- The Colossal Canadian Checker Caper, Colossus v Chinook 1993, Checker Solutions, 25 pp., ISBN 1-874483-02-7
   Brief account, with all 54 games annotated, of a friendly match between the top two computer checkers programs, won by Chinook +9 -2 =43.  Bryant's Colossus program was running on an ordinary IBM-compatible PC; Chinook on a powerful Silicon Graphics workstation.   Chinook's enormous database of endgame positions allowed it to escape with draws from three losing positions.



Schaeffer, Jonathan -- One Jump Ahead: Challenging Human Supremacy in Checkers, 1997, Springer, 496 pp., hardback, ISBN 978-0387949307
Schaeffer, Jonathan -- One Jump Ahead: Computer Perfection at Checkers, 2008, Springer, 585 pp., paperback, ISBN 978-0-387-765754, $54.95, PDF $39.99
  Detailed account by the lead developer of Chinook of its development, and in the revised edition, the result that Go-As-You-Please 8x8 American checkers is a draw with best play.   It is also the most carefully researched account of the history of computer checkers ever written: Schaeffer had access to unpublished material from Arthur Samuel and others, and the book corrects a number of published accounts.   Uses algebraic notation with x for captures, and moves numbered and paired as in chess.   Springer sells a PDF as well as a paperback edition.

Walker, Charles C., and Richard L. Fortman -- Checkers, International Checker Hall of Fame, 216 pp., spiralbound
  The 1992 annual is mostly devoted to computer checkers, with games from several matches and tournaments in which Chinook and other programs played, several articles on computer checkers, and descriptions of several other checkers programs.

International Draughts (10x10)
Goedmoed, Tjalling -- A Course in International Draughts, 2008, 166 pp., PDF

Kacher, Jake -- The Secrets of International Checkers, 90 pp., PDF

Westerveld, Goevert -- Beautiful Introductory Forcing Moves and Hidden Combinations, Years 1885-1933; 2021, Academia de Estudos Humanisticos, 234 pp., hardback, 978-1-716-170156-7
  Combinations taken from games, featuring history and profiles of many top players.   Many photographs and diagrams.   Available as a PDF.
Westerveld, Goevert -- Draughts is more difficult than chess, 2020, Lulu Editors, 80 pp., hardback, 978-1-716-43612-3
  Bilingual text (English and Spanish).  Quotations from notable players (in both English and International) on the superiority (or at least equality) of checkers over chess.

International draughts openings (10x10)
Babić, Mirko -- Damopenings Encyclopedie (Enciklopedija Damistićkih Otvaranja), Book 1 (1. 35-30, 1. 32-27), 1989, Mirko Babić, 86 pp., paperback
Babić, Mirko -- Damopenings Encyclopedie (Enciklopedija Damistićkih Otvaranja), Book 2 (1. 31-27), 1989, Mirko Babić, 168 pp., paperback
Babić, Mirko -- Damopenings Encyclopedie (Enciklopedija Damistićkih Otvaranja), Book 3 (1. 31-25), 1990, Mirko Babić, 113 pp., paperback
Babić, Mirko -- Damopenings Encyclopedie (Enciklopedija Damistićkih Otvaranja), Book 4 (1. 34-30), 1990, Mirko Babić, paperback   [missing]
A collection of 10x10 games, sorted by openings, along the lines of the Encyclopedia of Chess Openings.

World Draughts Federation, The Opening of the Game, 44 pages, World Draughts Federation, PDF
Detailed guide to openings in International Checkers on the FMJD website.

Pool checkers (8x8)
Black, Clyde "Kingrow", and  Archie "Checkerboard" Waters -- The Secrets of Spanish Pool Checkers, Book 1, 1947, paperback, ISBN 978-0685208632
Black, Clyde "Kingrow", and  Archie "Professor" Waters -- The Secrets of Spanish Pool Checkers, Book 2, 1950, 173pp., hardback

Faal, Momodou, reassembled by Jake Kacher -- The "NOW" Checkers, 2024, 103 pp., numeric notation, PDF
  Professional version of Faal's handwritten original,

Hines, Theodore P. -- Pool Checkers or Spanish Pool, 1947, 1969, University Place Book Shop, 125 pp., 2024, Coachwhip, ISBN 9781616465834, $22.22
  49 annotated games with opening variations, and a selection of problems.   The author uses a specific name for each of the White first moves: 21-17 Switcher, 22-17 Regular, 22-18 Single, 23-18 Cross, 23-19 Book, 24-19 Second, and 24-20 Lassie, and most two-move openings (except the 11-15's) have a compound name: e.g. 9-14 22-17 is termed Double Regular; 10-15 23-19 is Kelso Book; 11-16 24-19 is Bristol Second (he also gives the usual name Paisley).   Erroll Smith's 1922 book (on American checkers) uses some of the same names, but less consistently.

Kacher, Jake -- Encyclopedia of Endings, The American Pool Checkers, 2024, 249 pp., PDF
Kacher, Jake -- Pool Checkers Collection, Strategy and Analysis, 2023, 204 pp., PDF

A series of books (mostly self-published, seemingly all out of print and hard to find) by Vladimir Kaplan, a grandmaster and champion player, on American Pool checkers:
Kaplan, Vladimir -- American checkers : The Middle of the Game, Kaplan, 1996, 233 pages, ISBN 978-0961143640
Strategy in the midgame, including restrictions and clamps, and blockades and separation of the flanks.
Kaplan, Vladimir -- The Art of American Pool Checkers, Kaplan, New York, 1983, 277 pp., paperback, 978-0961143602
Detailed textbook on tactics, combinations, and strategy, with hundreds of problems and full solutions.
Kaplan, Vladimir -- The key to a success at American checkers : Master the middle of the game, Book 2, 1999, Kaplan, 224 pages, ISBN 978-0961143657
Among the topics are backward, hanging, and isolated pieces; pieces on opposite flanks; encirclement of the center.
Kaplan, Vladimir -- Play Checkers and Win, Kaplan, New York, 1988, 254 pages, ISBN 978-0961143626
The first section covers sacrifices, the remainder openings.
Kaplan, Vladimir -- Pool checkers: Theory and Practice, 1980, David McKay, hardback, 978-0679512769
Kaplan, Vladimir -- Strive to be Superior in American Checkers, 1994, Kaplan, New York, 214 pp., ISBN 978-0961143633
Roughly half the book is a general introduction to strategy; the rest is a detailed guide to openings.  Some of the material on openings is available at the Lidraughts website.
Kaplan, Vladimir -- The Tactics of American Pool Checkers, Book 1: Typical Sacrifices, 1984, Kaplan, 256pp., paperback, ISBN 978-09611436
Nearly 700 examples of sacrifices in pool checkers, divided into ten categories, followed by some illustrative games.
Kaplan, Vladimir -- Tournament checkers: An intoduction to pool checkers, 1980, Taplinger, 220 pp., ISBN 978-0800842055
Basic tactics and positional strategy, with an annotated selection of complete games and endings played by the author.
Kaplan, Vladimir M., and J. Myrick Frazier -- Pool checker games featuring Russian Grandmaster Vladimir Kaplan : shots, draws, wins; 1978, Pool Checker Masters, Detroit, Mich., 40 pp.
Book 5 of a series on Pool checker games.

Ramsey, George, and William Richardson -- The Amazing World of American Pool Checkers, 218 pp.

Turkish draughts
Mamoun, Dr. John S. -- Turkish Checkers or Dama, 2021, Mamoun, 319 pp., paperback, ISBN 9798488793125, $11.99
Basic strategy in Turkish draughts, with hundreds of diagrams, covering opening, middle game, and endgame tactics.

Other Variants

Beasley, John -- The Classified Encyclopedia of Chess Variants, 2007, Beasley, PDF, ISBN 978-0-9555168-0-1
  Second edition of David Pritchard's The Encyclopedia of Chess Variants, reorganized by category and expanded.   The definitive work on chess variants, it includes details on several combination chess-checkers games.
 
  

Boyer, Joseph, and V.R. Parton -- Les Jeux de Dames Non Orthodoxes, et Autres Jeux a Pions, 1956, 112 pp.
  A compendium in French containing 100 variants, at the time the most comprehensive collection of checker variants, although some of the games (go, reversi, mancala) are not at all variants of checkers.    Some of the games were devised by the authors (both of whom wrote multiple books on chess variants).   There are versions for three and four players, and versions played on three- and four(!)- dimensional boards.

Dale, Thomas -- The Sheffield Draught Player, or The Theory and Practice of the Losing Game, 1866, F.R. Spark, Leeds, 30pp.
  Apparently the first guide to Giveaway Checkers.   Dale gives rules, general theory, eight sample games, and 12 problems with solutions, including four (impossible) positions with a single man or king against 12 pieces in their initial positions.

Donovan, Tristan -- Great Board Games of the Ancient World, 2022, Wondrium, DVD
  Chapter 11, King Me! Alquerque and Checkers (about 30 minutes), is a brief video history of checkers, and its probable forerunner Alquerque.

Dunne, Frank -- The Draughts-Player's Guide and Companion, 1890, Dunne, Warrington, 212 pp.
   One of the most interesting 19th-century books.  More than half the book covers the English game, including the usual sections on The Move, endgames, openings, and sample games.   There is also a section of Literary Miscellanea with stories and poems (it is remarkable how many checker publications include poetry), five pages on The Losing Game (mostly from T. Dale's 1886 book The Sheffield Draughts Player), and Curious Games and Positions, which includes block games won by both players, and T.J. Brown's 172-move Interchange, which ends with no captures and the positions of both players reversed (but with 6 kings each).   There are also substantial (and complimentary) sections on four regional variants, which include problems and sample games: Spanish (flying kings, but no backward capture by pawns), Italian, Polish (10x10 International; Dunne gives a few 10x10 openings with names), and Turkish.  Downloadable from the Library of Congress.

Gardner, Martin -- The Last Recreations, Mathematical Magic Show, 1997, Copernicus, 392 pp., hardback, ISBN 0-387-94929-1
  Chapters 13 and 14, Checker Recreations Part I and II, pp. 207-232 cover checkers, including the shortest known game (20 total moves with captures, and 21 without, by Alan Malcolm Beckerson (one of a number he discovered in 1977), and regional and modern varations.  Martin Bryant later proved, using his program Colossus, that 20 total moves was the shortest game possible.  Only one of 32 possible positions ends with a Black piece left (and blocked); it can be reached by: 9-14 22-18; 11-15 18x11; 7x16 24-20; 2-7 20x2; 3-7 2x18; 1-6 21-17; 10-15 18x9; 5x21 23-19; 12-16 19x3; 4-8 3x12. 

Gardner, Martin -- Mathematical Magic Show, 1977, 1989, The Mathematical Association of America, 302 pp., paperback, ISBN
  Chapter 14, Knights of the Square Table, pp. 197-202, covers Cheskers, including a five move foolsmate by Wilfred H. Shepherd.

Gardner, Martin -- The Unexpected Hanging and Other Mathematical Diversions, 1969, 1991, University of Chicago Press, 264 pp., paperback, ISBN 0-226-28256-2
  Chapter 8, A Matchbox Game Learning Machine, pp. 90-102 describe minicheckers variants on 4x4 and 5x5 boards.  4x4 is a draw with best play; 5x5 with 3 checkers a side on the first and last ranks is a win, though Gardner does not say who wins.  Minicheckers on 6x6 boards was investigated at least as early as 1901 (see Minor Boards in Call's Vocabulary of Checkers).

Gibson, Walter -- Family Games America Plays, 1970, Barnes & Noble, 275 pp., paperback, ISBN 978-0064633765, $2.50
  Chapter 3, Board Games, gives a brief introduction to checkers (pp. 45-60), and a couple of pages on giveaway checkers, including an instructive illustrative game.

Golomb, Solomon W. -- "Of Knights and Cooks, and the Game of Cheskers", Journal of Recreational Mathematics, Vol. 1, Number 3, July 1968, pp. 130-38.

Goren, Charles H. -- Goren's Hoyle Encyclopedia of Games, 1950, 1961, Greystone Hawthorne (Chancellor Hall), 656 pp., hardback
  Includes Contract Checkers and other variants.

Hanauer, Milton L. -- Checkers Made Simple, 1963, Doubleday, paperback, $1.45
  Rare.  I have not seen this,  Introductory work on American checkers; the cover indicates there are sections covering rules and strategy for Spanish Pool, Russian, and Polish (i.e. International) Checkers.   The author also wrote several introductory books on chess.

Knight, Damon -- Charles Fort: Prophet of the Unexplained, 1970, Doubleday, 224 pp., hardback
  Describes Fort's game of Super-checkers on pp. 177-178.

Parlett, David -- The Oxford History of Board Games, 1999, Oxford University Press, 386 pp., hardback, ISBN 0-19-212998-8
  Draughts variations are covered on pp. 250-275, most of Chapter15, Take That!, including history, and a brief survey of regional and modern variants.

Schmittberger, Wayne -- New Rules For Classic Games
  Chapter 12, Beyond Checkers, pp. 169-184, covers 20 variants (a few of which appear in Boyer & Parton); it does a good job of covering regional variants, but is very dismissive of Anglo-American checkers. 

Tapalnitski, Aleh -- Meet Dameo!, 55 pages, free PDF download
  Excellent introduction to Freeling's variant, with rules, strategy, problems, and sample games.

Twiss, Richard -- Miscellanies, Volume II, 1805, London, 391 pp.
  On pages 135-240 is a long, rambling essay mostly on 10x10 Polish (International) Draughts, with historical notes, endgame problems, and a few variants (including a three-player variant on a triangular board, from an 1802 book by J.G. Lallement).   This was panned by George Walker in his 1845 revision of Sturges: "His leaves smell less of the midnight lamp, than of the paste and scissors ... whenever Twiss is original, he is almost always found to be wrong."

Magazines

The magazines highlighted in pale blue are ones I own or have seen.

The Cleveland Public Library's John G. White Collection has a notebook of magazines and newspaper columns on checkers which runs 117 handwritten pages.   No author or date is given.

ACF Bulletin -- American Checker Federation, monthly

The American Checker Monthly -- Teetzel, M.T., publisher, bimonthly, 32pp., $3.00 annually
The official publication of the American Checker Association, containing news, annotated games, and problems.   I have most of Volume 15 from 1935; in the November-December issue W.B. Reynolds reported that his column in the Louisville Herald-Post had been discontinued, and that there were only a dozen checkers columns left in American newspapers (though this was during the Depression).

American Checker Review -- Reed, James P. ed, et al., 1888-1890
Twice monthly (later monthly) American magazine, with the usual mix of opening analysis, games, and problems.  The American Checker Review was succeeded in 1891 by The Weekly Checker Journal, which after a hiatus became the Checker Journal.   James Patrick Reed, the main editor, was a noted player (including blindfold) and author, including a revision of Drummond's book on the Alma Opening.   Internet Archive has all three yearly volumes of the Review, and a single volume with the full run of the Journal.

The American Checkerist -- Ryan, William F., ed., January 1939 - June 1950, monthly, 28 pp., paperback, $0.50
I own the February 1950 issue (Vol. 6, Num. 2), containing news, letters, problems, and annotated games.

California Checker Chatter -- Leonard L. Hall, publisher, California Checkers Association, 1950-?? (Vol. 8, 1957), monthly/bimonthly, 12-24 pages
  Previously published in 1949 in ditto form (purple ink).  I have volumes 1 and 2 in a bound edition.    The early issues were printed, but later they switched to typewritten.  Very few diagrams.  Mix of news, games, and opening analysis.  

The Checker Clipper -- c. 1912-1913, newspaper

The Checkergram -- Ryan, William F., ed, monthly, 36 pp., paperback with cardboard cover, December 1929 - December 1931 (vol 2, num 9), $0.25
Heavier on news and lighter on problems and games.   I have the first five issues of volume 1.

The Draught Board -- ed. by J. Tonar, later W. Patterson -- 1869-1872, Newcastle-on-Tyne
  According to Call, the first magazine devoted to checkers.   Extremely rare.

The Draughts Review, ed. by W. G. Parker, various publishers, Hull, England, November 1924 - December 1927?, monthly, at least 20 pages
  The Official Publication of the English and Welsh Draughts Associations.  The Internet Archive has the first three volumes (Volume 1 contains 14 issues).  It included frequent features on Polish (that is, International 10x10) Draughts, and occasionally Italian and Canadian.

Elam's Checker Board -- ed. by Emin Elam, Mt. Sterling, Kentucky, January 1947 - July 1971 (Vol. 25, Num. 7), monthly, 36 pages
Long-running American magazine with a mix of problems (by such notables as Ben Boland and Tommie Wiswell), solving contests, opening analysis, annotated games (including some Eleven-Man Ballot), tournament results, and other news.   The pages are numbered sequentially from the magazine's founding: I have most of Volume 6 from 1952, running from pages 1709-2060.  It was the successor to Wood's Checker Player (Elam had published a smaller newsletter, Mt. Sterling Advocate, from 1936-1946, and merged it with Wood's).

English Draughts Journal -- edited by E.C. Whiting and others (most recently P. Braithwaite), English Draughts Assocation, December 1961 - December 2019 (v. 59 n.4), about 20 pages
   The official publication of the English Draughts Association, including news and annotated games.  Richard Pask was editor from 1987-1991 and 1996-1999.

Games Digest -- ed. by Ely Culbertson, September 1937 - December 1938, 64 pp., monthly, $0.20
   Bridge expert Ely Culbertson edited Games Digest, which included a regular column on checkers edited by Newell Banks, with problems by Thomas Wiswell and other composers, annotated games, and opening analysis.   The May 1938 issue (pp. 45-46) has analysis of the Octopus, showing 9-14 on Black's fourth move to be a loss.   The June 1938 issue (pp. 28-29) included an article by Bernard Talis on Stricker's Contract Checkers, including a sample game.

International Draughts Magazine -- conducted by J.A. Kear, monthly, 12 pages.
  Volume 1, number 1 was dated January 1st, 1888.  [International here does not refer to the modern 10x10 game.]   Kear was a noted author and analyst, who had previously edited the Bristol Draughts Player and the English Draughts Player.   Contains annotated games, opening analysis, problems, news, and announcements of new publications.  A digitized version of the first three volumes (running through May 1892) is available online.   It suspended publication at that time, and apparently never resumed.  The last issue of Volume 3 announced the formation of the British Draughts Association, which fizzled out within a year.

Keystone Checker Review -- Fernie Moffett, later James E. Reed, ed., bimonthly, 1956-1995
I have four 1994 issues courtesy of Reed.  It began in April 1956 and was originally edited by Fernie Moffett.

Midwest Checkers -- ed. by Richard L. Fortman and Louis Van Deven, February 1979 - ??? (Vol. 12, 1990), bimonthly, 10 pages
I have the first two volumes (through December 1980, Vol.2 Num. 6) in a single spiralbound booklet.    News and games, mostly annotated by Fortman, one of the best analysts.   The June 1980 issue (Vol, 2, Num. 3, p.85) published two 21-move captureless blocked games, composed by Alan Malcolm Beckerson on March 15th and 16th, 1980.   Successor to The Sixth District Newsletter (1976-???).

Morris-Systems Checkerist -- Banks, Newell Williams, ed., monthly, 24 pages
The usual mix.   I have several issues from 1925 (Volume 3).   In addition to news, games, and problems, there is a Spanish Pool Department edited by S. Herskowitz.

The New British Draughts Journal, quarterly, ISSN 0966-1549
   BDF, 384a Wells Road, Knowle, Bristol BS4 2QP

Wood's Checker Player -- ed. by Rex B. Wood, Gary, Indiana, monthly, 24 pages

Organizations
The World Draughts Federation (Fédération Mondiale du Jeu de Dames), founded in 1947, is an international organization uniting various national federations in numerous forms of the game, particularly International Draughts.  The website has a great deal of information, including books and other instructional material, on several different forms of checkers, including an opening guide to 10x10 International Draughts in PDF format   There are also links to sites by noted historians Arie van der Stoep and Govert Westerveld.    There is also an International Draughts Federation devoted to the 64-square International game.

Among the best sources of information on the Anglo-American game are the American Checker Federation and the English Draughts Association (founded 1898); there is also a World Checkers Draughts Federation.

Websites
The Checker Maven (Bob Newell) is one of the richest information sites on American checkers, with many strategy articles, reviews, and links, and downloadable copies of numerous books, including the superb books by Richard Pask.

The North Carolina Checker Association has a huge website with news, history (including an archive of newspaper articles), and instructional material.   Particularly valuable is The 1st 20 Best Published Play "Book" Moves in 3-Move Checkers, a detailed summary of all 156 ballot openings, compiled from fifteen different sources.    Another guide to openings is at the Albion High School Alumni website.

The Checker Cruncher is an online database of problems and games, with a clean graphical interface.   The Opening Explorer acts as a convenient interface to the Open Checkers Archive, a collection of over 22,000 games sorted by opening, developed by Hans l'Hoest, Jim Loy, and others.  It gives frequencies and statistics (Black win, draw, White win) for each move in any position, and complete historical games, similar to databases for chess openings.

Start Checkers contains introductory guides to openings, book reviews, and biographies of some notable players.

John Savard's website has useful information on openings (including a history of restrictions), and also on other variants of checkers, including his own invention English Gothic Double Checkers.

Checkers USA has a sizable library of downloadable books in both checkers (Anglo-American, International, Pool, and Russian) and chess.

The World of Pool Checkers has links to many downloadable books in both English and Russian (the Russian books deal with Russian checkers, very similar to American Pool; they are in algebraic notation with diagrams, and can be followed to some degree without any knowledge of Russian).

Mats Wither's Board Games site is a rich source of information on many abstract board games, particularly chess and draughts variants.    He has produced playable versions of many games for the Zillions system.

Lidraughts is an open server for International Draughts and six other variants; instructional material is available, in both text form and interactive lessons (using the online app).

PlayOK is an open server for nine variants, including Anglo-American checkers

A good video series on YouTube is by azcheckers.

Appendix 1: Anglo-American (8x8) Checker Openings

Two-Move Ballot
The unrestricted form of Anglo-American checkers (sometimes called Go-As-You-Please or GAYP) has had a world champion since 1840.  Eventually, the number of draws became so high that openings in each game were drawn at random from all of the playable pairs (later trios) of opening moves, forcing players to be familiar with a much wider range of openings.  (A notorious game in the 1863 Wyllie-Martins match was played 28 times from start to finish with exactly the same moves.)  The first system for selecting openings at random chose the first move for each player from a random deck of 43 possibilities, omitting six opening move pairs (which produce forced captures) which were thought to lose for White.  Four of the two-move openings formerly barred were reinstated in 1915, with some controversy (see Banks' Scientific Checkers); only the 21-17 reply to 9-14 or 10-14 was still barred.  46 of the two-move openings are part of three-move ballots (12-16 23-19 16x23, which was believed to be a loss for White (see Cayton's A Compilation of the Barred Openings) is barred; in 2007, Chinook confirmed that it is in fact lost.)

Three-Move Ballot
Three-Move Ballot (Three-Move Restriction) is a later development, starting about 1931, and introduced into the U.S. Championship in 1934.  The original version (which chose Black's first move, White's first move, and Black's second move) used 138 openings.  In 1937, the opening now known as the Nutcracker (10-15 22-17 9-14) was shown to be a loss by Willie Ryan, and was dropped, leaving 137 possibilities.  The permitted openings were increased to 142 in 1970, and 144 in 1994 (both in orange below) as more lines were analyzed more deeply and found playable.  In 1992, The American Checker Federation began a play-by-mail ladder, under the direction of Dennis C. Cayton, to investigate the 24 three-move openings which were still barred at that time, but had potential to be drawable (7 have so far been found to be drawable).  In 2003, The American Checker Federation added 12 more playable openings (highlighted below in light green), for a total of 156 (see Pask, The Golden Dozen).   Alex Moiseyev devised a special deck of 13 cards which are shuffled before each game begins.   The first card drawn tells which line to read on the second card, giving 13 x 12 = 156 possibilities.    Three-move was used primarily in the United States, until 1994 when the World Championship was split into two versions: GAYP and 3-Move.

With the first three moves, there are 302 sequences, of which 86 are transpositions [either swapping Black's first two moves, or reaching identical positions such as 11-16/8-11 and 12-16/8-12], leaving 216 unique positions.  42 of these result in the imminent loss of a piece, leaving 174 playable positions.   Richard Atwell was advocating for three-move restriction as early as 1905, stating in his book Scientific Draughts that there were "218 absolutely sound openings" (quoted by W.T. Call in Rambles with the Switcher), though he must have been counting transpositions.

Transpositions and Landings
There are many transpositions in the checker openings.   Learning key positions called landings can avoid memorizing dozens of tranpositions.   Richard Pask's Key Landings is a valuable reference.

Barred     Formerly Barred    New 2003 Ballots   Forced captures   [Transpositions]   Traditional Names    Official ACF Names      Other 8x8 Names    <Traps>

We use numerical notation with captures indicated by x; many sources, including most older books, do not specifically indicate captures.   Forced captures are in bold.   Underlined sets of moves are simple transpositions (different move orders).

Opening names
Some sources insist that Bristol only applies to the 24-20 reply to 11-16 (or even 11-16 24-20 16-19), but it seems preferable to have a single name for each Black opening move (although the strongest and most common move, 11-15, had no accepted name until Tom Wiswell suggested the name Old Faithful, which has become standard).   Wiswell uses Paisley as the name for 11-16 in several of his books; generally Paisley is now used specifically for 11-16 24-19 (or even 11-16 24-19 8-11).   Attempts have been made to standardize the names for White's first move (see Hines' book on Pool), to give compound names to the two-move ballots, but most of these have not been widely adopted (they are derided by Tescheleit in his Master Play of the Draught Board).  Star moves (denoted *) are moves necessary to hold a win in winning positions, or a draw in other positions.    Many openings in Brazilian, Czech, Italian, and Russian Draughts (including American Pool) correspond to well-known lines in Anglo-American checkers, though they have different names.

9-13              Edinburgh        Petrov's Game
 9-13 21-17
 9-13 21-17   5-9              5-9 Switcher  (25-21 best)
 9-13 21-17   6-9              6-9 Switcher  (25-21 best; 24-20 is a very difficult draw; all other moves lose)
 9-13 22-17  13x22
 9-13 22-18                    Downfall
 9-13 22-18   6-9              Dreaded Edinburgh   (25-22 probably best)
 9-13 22-18  10-14 18x9 5x14   Inferno
 9-13 22-18  10-15             Henderson
 9-13 22-18  11-15 18x11       Edinburgh Single    (8x15* necessary; 7x16 loses)  (see the historical notes below)
 9-13 22-18  11-16             Wilderness 1   (18-14 10x17 21x14 best)
 9-13 23-18                    Edinburgh Cross
 9-13 23-18  11-16             Wilderness 2   (18-14 10x17 21x14 best)    Tinsley thought it a loss; requires many star moves
 9-13 23-19  10-14
 9-13 23-19  10-15 19x10       Garter Snake   (6x15 best)
  9-13 23-19  11-15 22-18       [Will O' The Wisp]
 9-13 24-19  10-14                            added in 1994
 9-13 24-20
 9-13 24-20  11-16 20x11       Twilight Zone  (7x16 best)

9-14              Double Corner
 9-14 21-17? 14x21             Charleston                      
 9-14 22-17
 9-14 22-17  11-15 25-22  15-19   Double Corner Dyke
 9-14 22-17  11-16 24-19       [Pioneer]
  9-14 22-18                    Kaulen's Game
 9-14 22-18   5-9  18-15?!    Bronx Express  <Willie Ryan>     (weak for White; 11x18 best for Black)
  9-14 22-18  14-17             Pluto
 9-14 23-18  14x23             Double Cross  (formerly barred in two-move) (27x18 necessary; 26x19 loses to 11-16).  This is widely regarded as the hardest three move opening for White. 
 9-14 23-19
 9-14 23-19  10-15? 19x10  6x15    Rattlesnake  {approved for mail play only}  (untenable in Pool checkers because of the double capture 19x17)
 9-14 24-19
 9-14 24-20
   
10-14             Denny
10-14 21-17? 14x21              Charleston             
10-14 22-17
10-14 22-17   7-10              Dubious Denny   (see Reno, The Work of the Pentium)
10-14 22-17   9-13 17x10        Black Hole   (6x15*; 7x14?? loses to 25-22)
10-14 22-17  11-15 17x10        Denny Dodger, or Tinsley's Denny    (untenable in Pool checkers because of the double capture 17x19)
10-14 22-17  11-16 17x10        Gemini 1          (6x15*)
10-14 22-17  14-18              Heebie-Jeebies (named by Oldbury; see Pask)
10-14 22-18
10-14 22-18   7-10              Fraser's Inferno    added in 1970
10-14 22-18  12-16                                  added in 1970
10-14 22-18  12-16 24-20 16-19* 23x16  14x23  26x19  8-12    [White Doctor]
10-14 23-18  14x23             Denny Exchange (formerly barred in two-move)    (27x18*)  
10-14 23-19
10-14 23-19  11-16 26-23  9-13 24-20?? 14-17 21x14  6-10  20x11  10x26  31x22  8x31   <Denny trap>   (or 14-17 20x11 17x26 31x22 8x31)
10-14 23-19   6-10                                  added in 1970
10-14 23-19   7-10              Diabolical Denny    added in 1970     (19-15 Wolfville [WTC])
10-14 23-19  11-15 19x10  6x15  Virginia    added in 1994     (untenable in Pool checkers because of the double capture 19x17)
10-14 24-19
10-14 24-19   6-10              Nemesis
10-14 24-19   7-10 28-24 11-16 32-28    Hartshorn Attack
10-14 24-19  11-15 19x10  6x15  Rattlesnake 2     (untenable in Pool checkers because of the double capture 19x17)
10-14 24-20

10-15             Kelso      Fillipov's Game
10-15 21-17      
10-15 21-17   7-10              Octopus
10-15 21-17   7-10  17-14 10x17* 22x13 11-16*    trunk line Octopus  (see the historical notes below)
10-15 21-17   9-13              Tyne
10-15 22-17                     Dyke
10-15 22-17   9-14? 17x10  7x14 Nutcracker        (untenable in Pool checkers because of the double capture 17x19)
10-15 22-17  15-19              Skull Cracker
10-15 22-18  15x22              Kelso Single  or Kelso Exchange    (25x18 is best)
10-15 23-18                     Kelso Cross
10-15 23-18   6-10              Goatgetter
10-15 23-18   7-10              Strickland's Cross
10-15 23-19
10-15 23-19   6-10 22-17  11-16?? 17-13 16x23 13x6  2x9  27x2     <Fool's Trap>
10-15 23-19  11-16 19x10        Gemini 2        (6x15*; 7x14?? loses)
10-15 24-19  15x24
10-15 24-20                     Kelso-Lassie

11-15            Old Faithful
11-15 21-17                    Switcher (Newcastle)
11-15 21-17   9-13             Reverse Game of Bodyansky
11-15 21-17   9-13 25-21   8-11   Switcher
11-15 21-17   9-13 25-21   8-11 17-14  10x17  21x14  6-10 22-17  13x22  26x17     old Switcher trunk
11-15 21-17   9-13 25-21   8-11 30-25     modern Switcher trunk (see Fortman or Pask)
11-15 21-17   9-14 25-21  15-19     Switcher Dyke
11-15 22-17                    Dyke
11-15 22-17   7-11 22-18      Whilter Exchange   ???
11-15 22-17   8-11 17-13   4-8  21-17    Albemarle
11-15 22-17   8-11 17-13   4-8  23-19    [Old Fourteenth]
11-15 22-17   8-11 17-13   4-8  25-22    Douglas   (Lady of Lorna)
11-15 22-17   8-11 17-13   9-14          Erie
11-15 22-17   8-11 17-13  11-16 21-17  15-19  24x15 10x19   Kiev Defense
11-15 22-17   8-11 17-13  11-16 24-20                       Leningrad Defense
11-15 22-17   8-11 17-13  11-16 25-22  15-19  24x15 10x19   New Leningrad Defense
11-15 22-17   8-11 17-13  15-18 23x14    Maid of the Mill
11-15 22-17   8-11 17-14        White Dyke
11-15 22-17   8-11 23-19                 [transposes to Orthodox main lines]
11-15 22-17   8-11 25-22  11-16   Pioneer    (many transpositions)
11-15 22-17   8-11 25-22  11-16 24-19     Dyachkov's Defense      (23-18? instead is weak according to Kaplan)
11-15 22-17   8-11 25-22   4-8  23-19   9-13    Medkov's Game
11-15 22-17   8-11 26-22        Sokov's Defense
11-15 22-17   9-13 24-20  13x22  25x11      Wagram
11-15 22-17   9-13 25-21         [Switcher]
11-15 22-17   9-13 17-14  10x17  21x14      Boston
11-15 22-17   9-14               Central Game
11-15 22-17   9-14 23-19   7-11  [Whilter]
11-15 22-17   9-14 25-22  15-19  [Double Corner Dyke]
11-15 22-17  15-18               Wellington
11-15 22-17  15-19             trunk line Dyke 
11-15 22-17  15-19 24x15  10x19  23x16  12x19 17-13    Header 
11-15 22-18  15x22             Single Corner       Romanicheva's Game
11-15 22-18  15x22 25x18   8-11  29-25   4-8  25-22  10-15 24-20 12-16 27-24? (or 28-24?) 15-19 24x15 16-19  23x16  9-14  18x9  11x25  <Goose Walk>
11-15 22-18  15x22 25x18   8-11  29-25   4-8  24-19? 10-15 19x10  6x29    <alternate>
11-15 22-18  15x22 25x18   8-11  29-25   4-8  24-20  10-15 25-22 12-16 21-17  8-12 17-14   Maize line
11-15 22-18  15x22 25x18   8-11  29-25  10-14  25-22  7-10  24-19     Annie Gray
11-15 22-18  15x22 25x18   8-11  23-19                  [Tillicoultry]
11-15 22-18  15x22 25x18   9-13  23-19!                 [Will O' The Wisp]
11-15 22-18  15x22 25x18  12-16  18-14                  Lucy Long
11-15 22-18  15x22 25x18  12-16  29-25   9-13           Flora Temple
11-15 22-18  15x22 26x17       26-17 Single Corner     (very weak for White; see the historical notes below)
11-15 23-18                    Cross
11-15 23-18   8-11 18-14?        Waterloo  (Boston Cross)    <8-11 21-17?? loses to 9-14 18x9 5x21>
11-15 23-18   8-11 26-23         Crescent Cross
11-15 23-18   8-11 26-23  10-14    Crossing
11-15 23-18   8-11 26-23   9-13    Return Crossing
11-15 23-18   8-11 27-23         Marengo 
11-15 23-18   8-11 27-23   4-8   23-19 10-14  19x10 14x23  26x19  7x14  24-20  6-10    Cross trunk 
11-15 23-18   8-11 27-23  11-16  18x11 16-20   Slip Cross
11-15 23-18   8-11 27-23  12-16??    Firehouse Cross  (loses; see Fortman)
11-15 23-18   8-11 27-23  10-14    Short Cross    (see Reno, Work of the Pentium)
11-15 23-18   9-14             Cross Choice     Little Fork
11-15 23-18  12-16 18x11      Ryan's Cross
11-15 23-18  15-19 24x15  10x19    Montrose Cross
11-15 23-19                    Orthodox
11-15 23-19   7-11 22-17   9-14  [Glasgow Whilter]
11-15 23-19   7-11 22-18  15x22  Whilter Exchange
11-15 23-19   7-11 26-23   3-7  23-18   Whilter Cross
11-15 23-19   8-11 22-17         The City Game
11-15 23-19   8-11 22-17   3-8   Alma
11-15 23-19   8-11 22-17   3-8   25-22  11-16  26-23  7-11  23-18  16x23  17-13   Alma Doctor
11-15 23-19   8-11 22-17   4-8   Old Fourteenth
11-15 23-19   8-11 22-17   9-13  Laird and Lady
11-15 23-19   8-11 22-17   9-13  17-14  10x17  19x10  7x14   Black Doctor   (Nonsuch)
11-15 23-19   8-11 22-17   9-13  17-14  10x17  21x14          Laird and Lady trunk
11-15 23-19   8-11 22-17   9-13  25-22??     Laird and Lady Refused  {loses: see p.93-94 of Lees' Guide}
11-15 23-19   8-11 22-17   9-14      Buffalo (Glasgow Refused)?  Glasgow Whilter
11-15 23-19   8-11 22-17   9-14  25-22  14-18    Chicago
11-15 23-19   8-11 22-17  11-16  Glasgow
11-15 23-19   8-11 22-17  11-16  24-20  16x23  27x11  7x16  20x11   3-7   28-24  7x16  24-20  16-19  25-22  4-8  29-25  9-14  22-18  14x23   Martin's Rest
11-15 23-19   8-11 22-17  11-16  25-22  16x23  27x11  7x16  32-27   Kentucky Glasgow (see Cantor, but also Loy's Basic Checkers: Corrections)
11-15 23-19   8-11 22-17  11-16  26-23  15-18*    Glasgow Refused
11-15 23-19   8-11 22-17  15-18  Center
11-15 23-19   8-11 22-18  15x22  Tillicoultry  (or Cuckoo)   (usually 25x18 next)
11-15 23-19   8-11 26-23      Nailor     (or New York)   Old Game
11-15 23-19   8-11 27-23         Dodger (see Ryan's Championship Checkers Simplified, pp. 105-144)     Win Back
11-15 23-19   8-11 27-23   9-14      [Defiance]
11-15 23-19   9-13             Will O' The Wisp
11-15 23-19   9-14 27-23      Defiance
11-15 23-19   9-14 22-17   5-9   Fife
11-15 23-19   9-14 22-17   6-9   Souter     {many transpositions}
11-15 23-19   9-14 22-17   6-9   17-13  2-6  25-22   8-11  29-25   4-8   22-17  14-18  24-20   Needle
11-15 23-19   9-14 22-17   6-9   17-13  2-6  25-22   8-11  29-25   4-8   22-17  14-18  27-23   Shuttle
11-15 23-19   9-14 22-17   6-9   17-13  2-6  25-22  14-17    Pioneer
11-15 23-19   9-14 22-17   7-11  Whilter
11-15 23-19  10-14 19x10   6x15  [Virginia]
11-15 24-19  15x24             Second Double Corner (Invincible)
11-15 24-19  15x24 28x19   8-11  22-17    New Opening
11-15 24-19  15x24 27x20       27-20 Second Double Corner   (weak for White; see the historical notes below)
11-15 24-20                    Ayrshire Lassie
11-15 24-20   8-11 27-24         Old Paraffin   (possibly unsound: see Loy's Basic Checkers: Corrections)
11-15 24-20   8-11 28-24         Ayrshire Lassie trunk

11-16             Bristol
11-16 21-17                     Newcastle
11-16 21-17   7-11 17-13        Baby Octopus, or Octopus Refused     [17-14 10x17 22x13 11-15* Octopus trunk]
11-16 21-17   8-11              Oliver's Twister
11-16 21-17   9-14 25-21  16-19  Paisley-Dyke
11-16 21-17  10-14 17x10        Shark
11-16 22-17                     Leeds
11-16 22-17   9-13              Wilderness Companion, or Oldbury's Offering
11-16 22-17   9-14              Reverse Cheek
11-16 22-18                     London
11-16 22-18   8-11              Millbury
11-16 22-18   8-11 18-14   9x18  23x14  10x17  21x14        Reverse Header
11-16 22-18   9-13 18-14  10x17  21x14      Reverse Picket (see Aron Zlobinskiy's study in Russian)
11-16 22-18  10-14 25-22       Refused Reverse City Game
11-16 22-18  10-14 25-22       Reverse City Game
11-16 22-18  10-14 25-22   8-11  24-20  16-19  23x16  14x23  26x19  White Doctor
11-16 22-18  10-15 18x11   8x15   Cheetah
11-16 23-18                     Bristol Cross
11-16 23-18   7-11              Manchester
11-16 23-18   8-11              New Bristol
11-16 23-18  16-20                 three-move Bristol Cross
11-16 23-18  16-20 24-19  8-11? 19-15  10x19  18-14   9x18   22x8  4x11  27-24  20x27  31x8    <Canalejas stroke>
11-16 23-19  16x23              Black Widow      (formerly barred in two-move; 26x19* necessary (27x18? loses to 12-16))
11-16 24-19                     Paisley
11-16 24-19   8-11 22-17       Cheek
11-16 24-19   8-11 22-18 10-14  25-22 16-20  29-25?    Paisley Pickle Barrel
11-16 24-19   8-11 22-18 10-14  26-22 16-20  22-17 7-10  30-26 11-16  26-22   Paisley trunk
11-16 24-19   8-11 22-18  4-8   26-22 16-20    Jaywalker
11-16 24-20   7-11                added in 1970
11-16 24-20   9-13                [original version of Twilight Zone]
11-16 24-20   9-13 20x11  8x15   Liverpool   (weaker than 7x16 according to Kingsrow)
11-16 24-20  16-19 23x16 12x19   Bristol trunk

12-16             Dundee
12-16 21-17                     Dundee-Switcher
12-16 21-17   9-14              Minotaur
12-16 22-17  
12-16 22-18                     [8-12 Millbury]
12-16 23-18
12-16 23-19  16x23              (formerly barred in two-move; currently barred in three-move; lost for White according to Chinook and Kingsrow)
12-16 24-19
12-16 24-19   8-12              [Paisley]
12-16 24-20                     Bodyansky's Game
12-16 24-20   8-12              Bonnie Dundee
12-16 24-20  10-15              Skunk


Synopsis of Three-Move Openings


The chart above shows all 302 possible three-move opening sequences in Anglo-American checkers.   The opening Black moves are lettered A-G, and White's responses numbered 1-7 (following Newell Banks' Scientific Checkers).  Letters H-U continue for Black's second move (Rex Wood's extension from Wood's Checker Studies); W through AA are logical designations for the six forced captures.  The 86 transpositions consist of 59 reversed transpositions from swapping Black's first two moves, 11 from outside vectors where a piece moves twice by different routes (e.g. 11-15 22-17 15-19 = 11-16 22-17 16-19, or E2S = F2T), and 16 from inside vectors where a piece moves and a second rank piece takes its place (e.g. 11-16 22-18 8-11 = 12-16 22-18 8-12, or F3M = G3N, the Millbury).  72 of the transpositions (light blue) are equivalent to playable positions (though six are currently barred); the other 14 (gray) are equivalent to one of the 42 pink openings which lose a piece without compensation.   The 18 openings shaded yellow are playable positions, but currently thought to lose (for Black, except G5).   Openings in boldface are the 156 approved ACF openings; the seven shaded in light orange were added, increasing from 137 to 144; green increasing to the current 156.  The two openings shaded in dark orange were initially barred from two-move ballot, but were later added; both were included in the first set of three-move ballots.   The widely-used ACF system numbers the original 137 ballots in order from 1 (9-13 21-17 5-9 or A1H) to 137 (12-16 24-20 8-12 or G7N).  The additional ballots have been inserted with subletters (45C is 10-14 22-17 11-16 or C2F, called Gemini 1; 50C is 10-14 23-19 11-15 or C5E; called Virginia), except the Skunk (12-16 24-20 10-15 or G7D), which is simply called 138 because it is last in order and doesn't require renumbering any existing ballots.

Openings that lose a piece immediately
B1W, C1W -- Black captures 14x21
A4O, A5O, A6O, A7O, C5P, C6P, C7P -- White captures 22x13
C3P -- White captures 21x14
A5G, A6G, B5G, B6G, C5G, C6G, D5G, E5G, G6D, G6E -- White captures 19x12
B2Q -- White captures 23x14
G7T -- White captures 23x16
E5R -- White captures 22x15
D4S -- White captures 24x15
A3H -- 18-15 sets up two-for-one (11x18 23x5 or 10x19 24x15 11x18 23x5)
D1G, D2G, E1G, E2G, G2A, G3D -- 24-19 sets up two-for-one (15x24 28x12, or 13/15x22 19x12 and 22 falls)
B6Q -- three-for-two (22x15 11x18 23x14 10x17 21x14)
D1S -- three-for-two (23x16 12x19 24x15 11x18 22x15)
E1R -- three-for-two (23x14 9x18 22x15 10x19 24x15)
C2G, G1C -- three-for-two (17x10 6x15 24-19 15x24 28x12 or 17x10 7x14 23-18 14x23 26x12)
G3E -- three-for-two (18x11 8x15 24-19 15x24)
B2G, B7G, C7G -- two-for-one (23-18 14x23 26x12)
G4C -- two-for-one (22-17 14x23 26x12)
B7Q -- two-for-one (23x14 10x17 21x14)

In Brazilian, Russian, or Pool checkers, B5D, B6D, C2E, C5E, C6E, D1B, D2B, and E1C (and their reversed transpositions) allow White a double capture with no compensation on the second move.

Strongest to weakest openings
Strategy guides rank Black's first move in the following order from strongest to weakest, with White's strongest response(s) in parentheses: Old Faithful 11-15 (23-19 or 22-17), Double Corner 9-14 (22-18), Bristol 11-16 (22-18 or 23-18), Kelso 10-15 (21-17), Denny 10-14 (24-19), Dundee 12-16 (24-20), Edinburgh 9-13 (22-18).  [Denny and Dundee are very close, and some sources rank Dundee better, but 12-16 24-20 puts Black in a worse position than any of the Denny replies.]

The chart below shows the approximate relative strength of the 156 three-move ballots, a consensus I compiled from a variety of sources (Chamblee, Fortman, Gilbert, Pask, Walker, and Wiswell).  Red and orange openings are strongest for Black; Green are strongest for White, along the spectrum shown (unshaded ballots are balanced).  Any errors are mine.



Appendix 2: Historical Notes on Individual Openings

The Edinburgh Single
This early exchange in the Edinbugh opening (9-13 22-18 11-15 18x11, opening A3E) is one of the most difficult openings: H. F. Shearer believed it to be a loss for Black (Studies of the Two-Move Openings, pp. 67-68).   Later analysis found that Black could draw, and it was one of the initial 137 three move ballots (ACF number 6).   In Walker's Three Move Guide, Willie Ryan says: "Black must wage a relentless and faultless defense to avoid disaster."   The trunk line is 9-13 22-18 11-15 18x11 8x15*: 7x16 loses to 25-22 2-7* 22-18! (see Fortman).   Jerry Childers rates this as the hardest ballot for Black; Brian Hinkle puts it second only to the Black Hole.   The official ACF rankings have it about equal with the Inferno (9-13 22-18 10-14 18x9 5x14).

          
           Edinburgh Single trunk                               Octopus trunk

The Octopus
Also regarded as one of the most difficult of the three-move ballots for Black, 10-15 21-17 7-10 (ACF ballot 63, or D1A) was named the Octopus by Willie Ryan.   It was rarely played under two-move restriction, as the early move of the apex piece 7-10 was considered very weak.  Banks in Scientific Checkers does not mention it; Tescheleit barely so in volume 4 of Master Play, calling it a doubtful draw, but he only gives 9-14 or 3-7 at Black's fourth.   The strongest attack for White is the trunk 10-15 21-17 7-10 17-14 10x17* 22x13, with 11-16* being Black's only move to draw (diagram above left); 9-14 was already considered to be a losing move by the late 1930's (see John G. Finley's analysis in the May 1938 Games Digest, pp. 45-46).   Alexander in the 4th edition of Kear's Encyclopedia gives a few variations on p. 209, but says "I doubt a draw after this".  He does correctly assess 9-14 a loss and gives 11-16 as "Best chance for a draw".  Willie Ryan presents 27 pages of analysis in his 1940 book The Modern Encyclopedia of Checkers, calling it Battleground of the Analysts.  He credits A.J. Mantell as the main analyst, with help from Ryan and others.   Ryan said that the alternate capture 9x18 probably loses, and offered to play White against any player for $5, with Black only needing to draw (modern computer analysis supports his claim).   Fortman points out in Basic Checkers that White replies other than 17-14 allow transpositions into easier lines.   The Octopus can also occur from the ballot 11-16 21-17 7-11 (ACF 105, or F1L): if White replies 17-14 10x17 22x13, every Black reply loses except 11-15*, which transposes into the Octopus trunk (see Moiseyev's Sixth, game 48, for a deeply analyzed game).   Instead White can also play 17-13, called the Octopus Refused or Baby Octopus; here 3-7* is Black's only saving move.

The 26x17 variation of the Single Corner

The trunk line of the Single Corner opening is 11-15 22-18 15x22 25x18; this is one of the most common openings in Go-As-You-Please play, and leads to a position only slightly favoring Black.   There is a voluminous amount of published play on 25x18, and hardly any on the alternate capture, 26x17, which is found mostly in older books.  Lees' Guide classifies this as an opening separate from the main line, giving four pages to variations of the "26-17 Single Corner", citing an 1864 match between Wyllie and Martins as its first important appearance.  It gives 8-11 as Black's principal third move, with "the results showing Black has a decided advantage".   Strickland, in The British Draughts Player (1896) has only a footnote: "26-17 also draws, but is weak".   Even some works devoted to the Single Corner barely mention it: L.S. Head, on page 100 of Durgin's Single Corner, says: "26 17 draws, but the experienced player should never capture in that manner, as it leads to very critical play."    Volume 6 (The Single Corner) of Tescheleit's Master Play of the Draught Board gives it half a page on the very last page of the book, showing some draws and some Black wins; Tescheleit recommended 12-16 for Black's third move.   Duffy's Single Corner is quite pessimistic, giving it two pages showing nothing but Black wins: "This take rarely arises as the second player labors at a great disadvantage.  The position is decidedly in Black's favor... It is doubtful whether a sound White draw can be sustained on the opening."   Duffy recommends the 9-14 response: "The strongest attack and creates for White a weakness leading to an untenable defense and eventual loss.  A draw is nearly impossible because of White's cramped position."  (See diagram below left.)

Many modern guides, even comprehensive ones like Fortman's Basic Checkers, do not even mention it; several authors even give 25x18 as a star move (the only drawing move).   However, Richard Pask mentions it in the postscript to Complete Checkers: Repertoire: "Long dismissed as a loss, this has now been shown to be perfectly sound."   He gives a line from the 9-14 reply which after 22 moves he calls even.  Alex Moiseyev has a long note about the move in Sixth (p. 261), commenting that both he and Ron King have played the move.  Moiseyev suggests that Black's main attacks are 9-13, 9-14, and 11-15, but Ed Gilbert's Kingsrow analysis says that Black's best reply on the third move is 8-11, rating White's position at this point as even worse than the main line of the Double Cross opening.  The modern consensus is that it is not a forced win for Black, but a very difficult draw for White, confirming Patterson's verdict in How To Play Checkers: "If white plays 26 to 17, it would require great skill to obtain a draw."

The IDF system of balloted openings has one variation of the 26x17 Single Corner: ballot 17 XIII specifies the moves 11-15 22-18 15x22 26x17 9-14 31-26.   The Open Checkers Archive has ten games (six by Wyllie and Martins): two wins for Black and eight draws, all from the 19th century except King's drawn game in the 1999 National Tournament.

           
        11-15 22-18 15x22 26x17                          11-15 24-29 15x24 27x20

The 27x20 variation of the Second Double Corner

This has some similarities to the 26x17 Single Corner above, though it is not as weak compared to the trunk Second Double Corner (11-15 24-19; 15x24 28x19).  Once again Lees' Guide gives it a separate section "27-20 Second Double Corner", almost as long as the previous section on 28x19, with the comment "... still, it seems to admit of a fairly firm defense".   It also first appeared in the Wyllie-Martins 1864 match.  Lees gives 9-14 as the best response, also analyzing 8-11 and 10-15 (which transposes into a line of the Kelso Second, also mentioned in Kear's Encyclopedia).   Fortman calls it a "handicap line", also mentioning the Kelso transposition.   Pask, in Complete Checkers: Repertoire, calls it "weak, but sound, and capable of producing many White wins!".  He gives one line with 8-11.   Kingsrow says that 8-11 is the best response (just as it is against 28x19).   It occurs twice as an IDF ballot, once alone and once followed by 10-15.  The Open Checkers Archive has 21 games with 27x20, with all three common responses.  (See diagram above right).

Was the Second Double Corner ever considered a loss?

The New Complete Hoyle, at least as early as 1956, says: "The Second Double Corner, for a long time considered to be a White loss, has been rehabilitated by the discovery that White can draw by breaking his bridge promptly."   I can find no evidence in the literature that the Second Double Corner (11-15 24-19) has ever been judged as a loss for White.  It has been a standard opening since the 19th century, and was first named by Anderson in 1852.  The early bridge-breaking move 30-25 on White's 5th move dates back to Sturges in 1800 (where it is the trunk line in game number 53, a draw): 11-15 24-19; 15x24 28x19; 8-11 22-18; 10-14 25-22; 11-16 30-25; 4-8 22-17; 16-20 17x10; 6x24 32-28 (White has moved both bridge pieces).   But a supposed loss by 27-24 (instead of 30-25) on White's fifth, still mentioned as late as Cady's 1896 booklet, was corrected by Janvier in 1881, and 10-14 on Black's fourth was demoted to a branch line as early as 1895 in Kear's revision of Sturges, with 11-16 becoming the trunk (which it still is today).  Even more curiously, Kear gives three lines with 30-25 ending in losses for White (with Black playing 6-10 or 16-20 instead of Sturges's 4-8 on Black's sixth).   The Second Double Corner has been part of both two-move and three-move restriction since their inceptions (it is ballot number 101 in the ACF system).  The most likely explanation I can see for the Hoyle comment is that they were mistakenly following Cady.

Appendix 3 -- Glossary
 
apex -- checkers at 7 or 26, which form a strong defensive formation with 2 & 3 or 30 and 31.  Most openings avoid moving the apex piece too early.
bridge -- checkers paired at 1 and 3 or 30 and 32, which defend the king row.  General strategy suggests maintaining the bridge as long as possible, but there are exceptions.
inside vector -- a transposition reached by two different pieces moving: e.g. 12-16/8-12 on Black's first two moves reaches the same position as 11-16/8-11.
landing -- a position in the late opening or early midgame which can be reached from many openings by transposition.
the Move -- traditional name for what is called opposition in chess, leading, if not altered, to zugwang, where one side cannot move without being captured and will eventually lose.
outside vector -- a transposition reached by moving a piece twice by different paths: e.g. 11-15/15-19 on Black's first two moves reaches the same position as 11-16/16-19.
published play -- (often abbreviated PP; also called book play) analysis of games, particularly openings, in the literature (books and magazines, and now websites).  Corrections are found frequently, either winning lines in positions thought to be drawn, or vice versa.
Petrov's Triangle -- a basic endgame technique in 8x8 checkers with three flying kings versus one, dating back to 17th century Spain.   It does not work in 10x10 checkers.   In American Pool the 3 vs 1 ending is called The Special or Spanish First Position.  
star move -- (denoted by an asterisk) the only move in the current position which wins (all other moves draw or lose), or holds a draw (all other moves lose).   Some authors seem to use it for a very strong move which is not the only move to win or draw.
trunk (game) (line) -- principal line in an opening (the same as a main line in chess) from which variations (branches) are listed.
variant -- one of a family of related games.
variation -- a sequence of moves in an opening.
zugzwang -- a position where any move will lose one or more pieces.

This article is copyright ©2024 by Michael Keller.  All rights reserved.  This file was revised on September 11, 2024.